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Nazi Policy (1933-1939)
Anti-Jewish Actions and Legislation
when the Nazis came to power, there was no systematic plan to eliminate Jews from German life--this proceeded in an ad hoc mannerthere is no clearly marked path to the final elimination of the Jews (hence, "the twisted road to Auschwitz")
still, there was a sense of certainty that the Nazis would do something
at first, acts of hooliganism by the SA--beatings, boycotts, etc.
this did not occur in any kind of organized mannerthe Nazi hierarchy (including Hitler) wanted more organization
The Enabling Act
the Nazis next turned to a series of legislative acts
the pseudo legality of these acts was justified by the Enabling Act (1933) in which the Reichstag gave Hitler and the Nazis dictatorial power
this gave the force of law to Nazi decrees
this helped the Nazi regime maintain an image of respectability abroad
also necessary to get the support of conservatives and bureaucrats
on March 23rd, the last Reichstag met in an opera house, surrounded by S.S. forces and filled with Stormtroopers inside
most of the Communist and a number of Socialist deputies had already been arrested
the votes of the Center Party were crucial for Hitler in getting the necessary two-thirds majority to pass an Enabling Act, and this they supplied, thus giving him arbitrary power
he could now use this power without the Reichstag, and ignore the Constitution
all opposition political parties were destroyed or dissolved themselves
trade unions were liquidated
opposition clergy were arrested
the Nazi party had, in Hitler's words, become the state
The Nazi Boycott of Jewish Stores, April 1933
the first organized act was a boycott of Jewish shops and services (April 1, 1933)
the justification was that this was an attempt to keep the foreign Jewish press
from attacking Nazis
after the Enabling Act was passed, violence against Jews escalated and Julius Streicher, editor of the vehemently anti-Semitic newspaper Der Stürmer, was told to form a boycott committee
lists of specific businesses and individuals to be boycotted were published
on April 1st, Nazi pickets were posted in front of stores and factories belonging to Jews and in front of Jewish professional offices to prevent anyone from entering
Hermann Göring, meanwhile, had ordered German Jewish leaders to deny reports of Nazi atrocities committed against Jews
Germans who tried to buy from Jews were shamed and exposed publicly
the boycott lasted only three days but it had important implications and consequences
it revealed the completeness and efficiency of Nazi information on Jewish economic life
it also strengthened the idea that it was permissible to damage and even destroy that life with impunity
later measures were based on this assumption
still, this was not well planned and was effectively called off after the first day
this boycott proved detrimental to the German economy and served to highlight German economic instability
Book Burnings
book burnings became commonplace in pre-war Germany--the Nazis denigrated much of the Western cultural heritage of Europe and liberal, humanistic values
on May 10, 1933, in Berlin, the first of a series of book burnings took place--the works of world-class authors such as Thomas Mann, Erich Maria Remarque, Jack London, H. G. Wells, and Emile Zola as well as those of Jewish writers were burned in huge bonfires under the approving eye of Joseph Goebbels, the Propaganda Minister
while the books burned, Goebbels declared: "The soul of the German people can again express itself. These flames not only illuminate the final end of an old era; they also light up the new."
Goebbels henceforth nazified German culture, forcing all of the arts to serve the new regime
many great writers, musicians, artists and actors fled Germany or were silenced
Anti-Jewish Legislation
April 1933--Four anti-Jewish Laws:
1) Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service--April 7, 1933
removal of non-Aryans from the civil service
on April 7th, the German government issued an order firing all civil service workers not of "Aryan" descent
this was the first instance of discrimination on the basis of "race" which was consistent with German law
2) Law Regarding Admission to the Bar -- April 7, 1933
removal of non-Aryans from the justice system (lawyers, judges)
3) prevented Jewish doctors from treating National Health patients
4) Law Against the Overcrowding of German Schools and Institutions of Higher Learning -- April 25, 1933
on April 25th, a numerus clausus, or quota law, limited admission of Jews to institutions of higher learning to 1.5 percent of the total
between January 20, 1933 and the implementation of the law in the beginning of April is a very small amount of time, given the circumstances
a decree was issued on April 11th defining "non-Aryans" as those who were descended from "non-Aryan" parents or grandparents, even if only one grandparent was "non-Aryan"
so, anyone with at least one Jewish grandparent was considered a non-Aryan and dismissed
many Jews were still excluded from these laws because of the exceptions set up by Hindenburg (for war veterans)
decorated veterans, relatives of those who had been killed in the war, anyone who
was already in office on August 1, 1914
certain people were even dismissed before the law went into effect, anticipatory of the law
when some people were thus dismissed before the law went into effect, they went to President Hindenburg, who wrote to Hitler about the subject
only then did the exclusions occur
first came the action, and then the law, in effect
Hitler said that it can not be assumed that a Jew with a medal got the medal in the "right way"
those people who retained their jobs because of the exceptions did not hold them for long
next came the disbarring of Jewish lawyers, reducing them to consultants--this ordinance was signed by Hitler
Jewish lawyers were allowed to represent only Jewish clients
the laws were not totally effective--because of the exceptions, 47% of non-Aryan judges could not be removed
Other anti-Jewish decrees
the slaughter of animals for food under Jewish kosher laws was banned on April 21st
on September 28th, Jews were excluded from all artistic, dramatic, literary and film enterprises
on September 29th, Jews could no longer own farmland
eventually, 400 specific anti-Jewish laws and decrees were passed, each based on the Nazi racist definition of a non-Aryan
these actions created thousands of jobs for "Aryans."
these first anti-Jewish efforts were piecemeal and ineffective
Nuremberg Laws (September 1935)
Nazi racial radicals were not satisfied--obsessed with the notion of racial purity
began to press regime for legislation outlawing Jewish-Aryan sexual relations
**need arose to determine who was a Jew**
it needed to be made clear in every case who is or is not a Jew
this would have to be done in such a way that the person, once defined, could not change his or her status
Lösener the bureaucrat who finally wrote the definition
when Hitler arrived in Nürnberg in 1935 for the party rally, he asked that some laws be drafted concerning citizenship
on September 15, 1935, comprehensive new laws codified the racial policies which Hitler envisioned in Mein Kampf
under the Reich Citizenship Law (Reichsbürgergesetz), the status of German citizenship was conveyed only to those belonging to "a national of German or related blood"
Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honor (Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre)
laws were later known throughout the world as the Nürnberg Laws, although they were signed in Berlin by Minister of the Interior Dr. Frick on September 15, 1935.
1) marriage between Jews and Germans illegal
2) sexual relations between Jews and Germans illegal
3) illegal for Jews to employ German housemaids under age of 45
Jews were forbidden to fly the German flag
this law stripped Jews of all basic civil rights, classifying them as state subjects rather than as citizens
Jews were defined as a separate race
thirteen supplementary laws were passed during the next eight years
this law also defined who was a Jew:
Jew--he who has at least three grandparents who are Jewish by race--this is defined as belonging to the Jewish religion
the offspring of a full Jewish parent and a half Jewish parent is therefore considered 100% Jewish
the problem was what to do with half Jews
the controlling criterion was if s/he had already opted for Judaism or had chosen a Jewish partner by the date of the enactment of the Reich citizenship law
Mischling of the first degree is a half Jew who is not religiously Jewish or is not married to a Jew on the date of the enactment of the Reich citizenship law
Mischling of the second degree had only one Jewish grandparent
these two classes of Mischlinge were saved, because no one ever decided what should be done with them
person with four or three Jewish grandparents was considered fully Jewish
Mischlinge not subjected to full brunt of racial laws
someone with only one Jewish grandparent was Jewish if s/he adhered to Judaism
some thought of eliminating this "third race" by classifying Mischlinge of the first degree as Germans and Mischlinge of the second degree as Germans (never happened)
summary of categories of non-Aryans:
1) Mischlinge of the second degree--persons descended from one Jewish grandparent
2) Mischlinge of the first degree--persons descended from two Jewish grandparents but not belonging to the Jewish religion and not married to a Jewish person on September 15, 1935
3) Jews-- persons descended from two Jewish grandparents belonging to the Jewish religion or married to a Jewish person on September 15, 1935, and persons descended from three or four Jewish grandparents
original explanation of the laws given in 1935 by Reichsminister Frick (Interior):
"The Reich Citizenship Law for the Protection of the Blood
as well as the attached regulations shall not have the purpose of lowering the standing of members of the Jewish people because of their (exclusion from) membership in the national community. Instead, the exclusion of Jews from official German life and the prevention of racial mixing are imperatively necessary to secure the continuation of the German people's existence. Jews in Germany shall not be prevented from pursuing a livelihood. However, the fate of Germany shall in the future be solely in the hands of the German people." (Weitz, John. Hitler's Diplomat: The Life and Times of Joachim von Ribbentrop. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1992, pp. 95-96)
this eventually determined who would live or die
nothing could be done until the victim was defined--until the victim could be automatically identified by a bureaucrat
no one at this time could envision the ominous Nazi decision to physically destroy all Jews, but the Nuremberg Laws were an important step toward that end
the Nazis now had a definition that was the first of a chain of measures, one leading to another, escalating in severity and leading ultimately to the physical destruction of European Jewry
once Jews could be defined and identified, they now could be and were segregated socially, politically, and economically from other Germans
their property could be and was confiscated
they had become pariahs, outside the protection of the state they had placed their confidence in for generations
by the time that the Nuremberg Laws had been proposed, more than 75,000 German Jews had fled the country
many thousands of others who left were not Jews at all in their own minds, but were defined as Jews or "Christian non-Aryans" by the ideological dogma of the Nazi party
as such, they were subject to the same harassment, social and economic isolation, and physical and emotional intimidation and discrimination as the Jews
many of these "non-Aryans" were baptized Christians, were regular church-goers, were the sons and daughters of Christians, and thought and acted no differently than their friends and neighbors who were accepted as true "Germans" the only thing which distinguished them from their neighbors was that they had some "Jewish blood" in their veins, perhaps going back two generations, which made it impossible fr them to be considered "German" under Nazi doctrine
Expropriation and Aryanization of the Economy
the goal in the 1930's was to make life so miserable for the Jews that they would be induced to emigrate
this occurred at first on a small scale in an ad-hoc manner (boycotts, beatings, etc.)
as Hitler consolidated power, he pursued his goal to eliminate "non-Aryans" from the social and economic fabric of Germany
by 1938, thousands of Jews had been fired or forcibly "retired" from their jobs as a result of laws (e.g. "Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service") and decrees
Jews were barred from serving in government posts, practicing law, participating in cultural enterprises such as theater, movies, arts, and literature (September 29, 1933), and serving in the press (October 4, 1933)
this began with dismissals from salaried positions of Jews in the bureaucracy itself with the Law for the Restoraion of the Professional Civil Service (see above) in 1933
this was followed by the dismissal of Jewish employees in private enterprise, bot Jewish and non-Jewish businesses
by 1938, with the reins of power totally in Hitler's hands, the Nazis began a program to systematically remove the Jews from participation in the German economy
aryanization--Jewish firms taken over by Germans and the owners "compensated"--usually about 10% of worth
aryanization contracts--providing for Aryans to take over Jewish enterprises
a stipulation of these was that Jews would be dismissed from their positions
what was a Jewish enterprise?
-majority of shares were owned by Jews
-one member of management was Jewish
or
-there was a "Jewish spirit" in the enterprise
as soon as there was pressure on Jewish firms to sell out, there was interest on the part of German firms to gain control of the "object"
Jews were not allowed to sell an enterprise for profit--this was regulated by the Economics Ministry
by then end of 1938, the transfer of Jewish enterprises into German hands had not yet been completed
elements of the economy necessary for rearmament not touched until 1938
after Kristallnacht, decrees were issued to finish the aryanization of Jewish enterprises
in the case of larger enterprises, a trustee was put in charge who sold the firm to a German enterprise
smaller enterprisers (retailers) were forced to liquidate
this policy of "Aryanization" made use of several government decrees:
January 5, 1938 The "Law Regarding Changes of Family Names and Given Names" was issued, regulating name changes. One purpose was to make it more difficult for Jews to escape persecution by changing their names.
April 22, 1938 It became a crime for a German to disguise the fact that a business was owned by a Jew.
April 26, 1938 Jews had to report the value of their property, except for personal goods, if the value exceeded 5,000 Reichmarks.
June 14, 1938 Jewish businesses were defined by decree.
July 6, 1938 Many types of businesses were ordered to desist operation by December 30, 1938 if they were "Jewish" consistent with the June 14, 1938 decree.
July 23, 1938 Jews were required to carry identification cards.
July 25, 1938 Jewish physicians were given until September 30th to give up their practices.
September 27, 1938 Jewish lawyers were barred from practicing their profession after November 30th.
October 5, 1938 Jews were required to hand in their passports, so that the passports could include the designation of "J." This action was motivated by a request by the Swiss government, which did not want to admit Jewish refugees.
May 4 1939 Jews are not allowed to rent property.
May 11 1939 Jews are not allowed to work in the travel agency business (maybe because that would enable more Jews to escape?).
Why did so many Jews stay in Germany?
German Jews were unprepared for Hitler's rise to power
there was an assumption that the regime would not last or that it would at least drop its anti-Semitic policies
in the first year (1933), 37,000 Jews fled Germany, in 1934, only 23,000 fled
Jews believed that they could weather the storm
in spite of their exclusion from national life, the majority hoped for some kind of stabilization
there was a feeling that the worst had passed in 1934 after de-emancipation
until 1935, when the Nuremberg Laws were passed, Nazis differed on what to do with German Jews. Jewish cultural as well as physical survival in Germany seemed possible
the Jüdische Kulturbund was organized in 1933 and provided purposeful work for professional Jewish musicians, actors, and artists who had been expelled from German cultural fields
the Jewish community as a whole, in its organized form, the Reichsvertretung der deutschen Juden, was not threatened until 1938, and between 1933 and 1935, there was a lull in anti-Jewish persecution
a false optimism was induced by the S.A. purge of June 30, 1934, and some Jews who had left Germany, believing that the most dangerous of the Nazis had been removed, returned to Germany after the purge
in the early 1930's, there was also general belief that the Nazi regime would be short-lived
although 37,000 Jews left Germany in 1933, many who remained believed that they could hold on and hold out
Jewish attachment to Germany was particularly strong, and they hoped for support and protection from the non-Nazis in the Cabinet and hold-over civil servants from the Weimar Republic
Rabbi Leo Baeck, the acknowledged intellectual and spiritual leader of German Jewry, was one of the few German Jews who was fundamentally pessimistic about the future
soon after Hitler came to power, while addressing a meeting of Jewish communal organizations, Rabbi Baeck said, "The thousand-year history of German Jewry has come to an end."
but he did not remain passive
as rabbi, he urged Jews to maintain faith in the ultimate triumph of justice
he tried to create a sense of inner freedom among Jews that could sustain them through the persecution
he also agreed to serve as the spokesman for all German Jews and became head of the newly created Reichsvertretung der deutschen Juden (Reich Representation of the German Jews) in September 1933
volunteer organization--supervised welfare programs,
educational programs, emigration, ran training programs
acted as an emmisary to the Nazis--protested discrimination
the Council tried to be the political voice for all German Jews in relation to the government and in the early months of its existence tried to appeal for a redress of grievances on the basis of law
these appeals were ignored, and the Council soon began to concentrate on the urgency to emigrate, particularly for young people
the Council also negotiated with Jews abroad for political support that would not expose them to retaliation and for funds
one of its most important tasks, after Jewish children were removed from schools, was to provide a network of special schools for Jewish children who were shocked by their sudden rejection and isolation
in the meantime, "racial science" became compulsory in German schools, and all courses were nazified
reawakening of Jewish identity during this period--attendance at synagogues increased, etc.
Nazis made no serious attempt to curtail Jewish religious life or cultural life until 1938
