Primers

<body topmargin=0 leftmargin=0 marginheight=0 marginwidth=0> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0><tr> <td valign="top" colspan=2 height=90 BGCOLOR="#A6CAF0" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <FONT SIZE="5" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><B>Primers</B></FONT><FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#006633" FACE="Arial" > </FONT><FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#FF3300" FACE="Arial" > </FONT><FONT SIZE="1" COLOR="#CC0033" FACE="Arial" > </FONT><B> |     </B><A HREF="index.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Home"><U><B>home</B></U></A></div> <div> <A HREF="id17.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="About the WoodMangler"><U>About the WoodMangler</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id18.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Shop Jigs, Tips, and Techniques"><U>Shop Jigs, Tips, and Techniques</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id24.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Compare Benchtop Bandsaws"><U>Compare Benchtop Bandsaws</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id23.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="PicStorage"><U>PicStorage</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id26.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Articles"><U>Articles</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id19.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Basic Tablesaw use"><U>Basic Tablesaw use</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id22.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Turnin on the Lathe!"><U>Turnin on the Lathe!</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id21.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Ryobi AP1300 Planer"><U>Ryobi AP1300 Planer</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id20.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Tame Those Band Clamps!"><U>Tame Those Band Clamps!</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id25.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Gallery of Work"><U>Gallery of Work</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id27.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Weight Loss"><U>Weight Loss</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id34.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Comparison Photos"><U>Comparison Photos</U></A>   |   <B>Primers</B>   |   <A HREF="id31.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Grinding Jig Instructions"><U>Grinding Jig Instructions</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id30.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="How to turn a bowl step by step"><U>How to turn a bowl step by step</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id28.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Featherboards"><U>Featherboards</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id29.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Links"><U>Links</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id32.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="CA Glue"><U>CA Glue</U></A></div> <div> </div> </td> </tr><tr> <td valign="top" width=190 BGCOLOR="#A6CAF0" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <A HREF="id33_m.htm#true_grit___a_sanding_primer" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Primers"><U>True Grit - A Sanding Primer</U></A></div> <div> <A HREF="id33_m.htm#the_plane_basics" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Primers"><U>The Plane Basics - Hand Planes and their uses</U></A></div> <div> <A HREF="id33_m.htm#mortise_and_tenon_joinery" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Primers"><U>Mortise And Tenon Joinery</U></A></div> <div> <A HREF="id33_m.htm#jointer_techniques" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Primers"><U>Jointer Techniques</U></A></div> <div> <A HREF="id33_m.htm#hand_cut_dovetails" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Primers"><U>Hand Cut Dovetails</U></A></div> <div> <A HREF="http://www2.gol.com/users/nhavens/htmlfile/dt1-e.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www2.gol.com/users/nhavens/htmlfi"><U>Norm in Fujino Tutorial on Hand cut Dovetails</U></A></div> <div> <A HREF="id33_m.htm#cutting_to_the_chase___handsaws" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Primers"><U>Cutting to the Chase - Handsaws</U></A></div> <div> <A HREF="id33_m.htm#cherry_blotching" TARGET="TRLX_Middle" TITLE="Primers"><U>Cherry Blotching</U></A></div> <bR> <bR> <bR> </td> <td valign="top" height=390 BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#080000"> <div> Here are some "Primers" written by some very talented and experienced Woodworkers who have put their opinions down for all to read and learn.....</div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div>  <A NAME="true_grit___a_sanding_primer"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A><FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><B><U>TRUE GRIT - A Sanding Primer</U></B></FONT></div> <div> By Danford C Jennings</div> <div> Not too long ago I had an e-mail exchange with a friend of mine who is very much involved in woodworking shows, demonstrations, and woodworking guilds.  The crux of the "conversation" being how there is seemingly a vast number of woodworkers that have very little understanding of even the most fundamental and basic aspects of working with wood.  I too have observed this phenomenon in the small number of "demos" that I've given locally, out in the field, and what I've observed on various forums.  This includes the most basic task of all; sanding.</div> <bR> <div> Out of all the tasks we perform sanding is probably the most boring and mundane of them all.  Yet, it is the most crucial operation to the success of ones' project, both in terms of preparing the surface for finishing and finishing itself.  I am often times amazed how very few actually have "mastered" this most basic of woodworking operations.  The very first thing I was taught to do when I was a little shaver was how to sand.</div> <bR> <div> While I personally try to avoid abrading wood at all costs, sanding is necessary at times and must be done when applying film finishes.  This "primer" is not intended to be an indictment against sanding but to help others achieve better results in their woodworking efforts.  While it does not require a high degree of skill, it <I>does</I> require a skill nonetheless.  Most folks appear to believe that sanding is something that arose out of the early 20th century with the invention of sandpaper.  This is not the case; in the 18th and 19th centuries' sharkskin, pumice, and other abrasives were used.  So, yes, sanding has its "traditional" applications.</div> <bR> <div> For those of us who work with wood there are three basic types of sanding papers; aluminum oxide, garnet, and silicon carbide (wet/dry).  There are also various cloths such as emery cloth and resin bonded aluminum oxide that are used on belt sanders, drum sanders, and etc.  I will try to keep this limited to the 3 basic types of sanding paper.  Personally, I prefer aluminum oxide sanding paper for general sanding work.  I've found that it won't clog as fast and lasts longer than garnet paper.  Some finishers that I know prefer to use the very fine garnets for dry sanding between coats.  For this discussion, I will attempt to "answer" all the basic questions about sanding but were afraid to ask. ;)</div> <bR> <div> <B>The Basics</B></div> <bR> <div> Sandpaper comes in grits; the numeric designation of the mesh openings per square inch.  Coarse is 36, 40, 50; medium 60, 80, 100; fine from 120, 150, 180; very fine 220, 240, 280, 320, 260, 400, 500, 600; with the silicon carbides going up as high as 1500.  Very coarse and coarse grits are seldom, if ever, used and the very fine grits generally are used between film finish coats.  </div> <bR> <div> Like most operations when working with wood, you will always want to sand with the grain to remove milling marks and level the surfaces in preparation for the finishing operations.  In a sense, different species of woods have different "grits" too.  For example, Red Oak has a much more open grain (coarse) than any of the Maples (very fine).  I mention this because, from my observations, most folks fail to match sandpaper grits to the grain of the wood being sanded.  In my opinion, this is one of the biggest reasons why most are dissatisfied with their results not only with the actual finished project but also in the amount of time devoted to the sanding operation.  Using the wrong grits can significantly increase the time spent. </div> <bR> <div> As a general rule, rough sanding should begin with 80 or 100 grit and ending in the upper spectrum of the fine grit (180) to the lower spectrum of the very fine grits (220 to 320) depending on wood species.  Grit progression should always be in order, sometimes (again depending on wood type) the process can be quickened by skipping no more than two grits.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Tools & Technique</B></div> <bR> <div> The most important and basic tool for sanding is the sanding block.  This is the most overlooked tool in one's wood working arsenal, in my opinion.  How many of us will just grab a small block of hard wood, wrap the sandpaper around it, and begin to sand or use one of those plastic sanding "blocks"?  A "proper" sanding block should have a cork bottom around ¼" in thickness.  The cork is firm enough to help level the service but at the same time provides a certain amount of cushion to allow the abrasive to efficiently "cut" the fibers without quickly dulling the abrasive particles.  A selection of good sanding blocks will allow one to quickly progress through the process, be it general sanding work or finesse sanding and it should fit comfortably in the hand.</div> <bR> <div> Here I will digress for just a moment.  The friend I mentioned in the beginning recently sent me a selection of sanding blocks to try out.  I've been doing this for a little over 4 decades and it takes quite a bit to get me excited about tools and I never thought I'd see the day when I could get excited about <I>sanding</I>!  When they first arrived I could immediately see that these blocks were worth checking out.  They are "dual surface" blocks with ¼" cork on one face and ¼" felt on the reverse face, the felt side being used for initial smoothing and the cork for final sanding.  The blocks are made of micro laminated hardwood in the shape of a parallelogram with a side "cove" for a comfortable fit.   He sent me all five sizes, ranging from the 4 ½" x 5 ½" block down to the 1" square "strip".  I've been "testing" these things for about 3 weeks now and I can honestly say that they are the best sanding blocks I've ever used.  The bevel cut ends ensure that you can get into tight areas and places where perpendicular grains are joined.  They are also the most comfortable blocks I've seen and I've actually have enjoyed the sanding process with their use.   The are called Master Blocks™, at this time I do not have a price list or where they can be ordered from but when I do receive that information I will post it here.  I highly recommend them and can assure you that you will be astounded by the results of what a quality sanding block will yield.  They are particularly outstanding for finish work.</div> <bR> <div> Beyond the sanding block, there are the corded sanders.  Here again, I've found that many are "confused" about types and their use.  There are belt sanders, disc sanders, drum sanders, straight line sanders, orbital sanders, random orbital sanders, detail sanders, etc, etc; each designed for different tasks.  In my opinion, there is not one single sander that can perform all the sanding tasks.  I classify them into three basic categories; rough, shaping, and finishing.  I include the belt, disc, and straight line sanders in the "rough" category, the drum and spindles in the "shaping", and the orbitals and detail in the "finishing".  Naturally, there is flexibility in their use with the possible exception of the orbitals and detail sanders, these should only be used as finish sanders.  I will note that in the "finishing" context, I am referring to final sanding prior to the actual application of the finish itself.</div> <bR> <div> Regardless of the tool being used, the most common mistakes I see in actual "technique" are applying too much downward pressure, not keeping the paper "clean", not changing the paper often enough, improper grit usage, and not keeping the sanding surface free from the dust.  Some of these may seem very minor but collectively they do "add up."  Probably the most "misused" tool would be the orbital and random orbital sander.  Not only do I see a large number of folks using them for initial sanding in the coarser grits but also they are also under the mistaken impression that grain direction is immaterial.  This is just not so; sanding should [b]always[/b] be performed with the grain.  You can "overlap" slightly were the grains are at right angles but one should always finish up the stroke with the grain.  For example you are finish sanding a frame and panel cabinet door, the correct method is to sand the rails slightly into the stiles then finish the strokes on the stiles to the joint running the sander's edge along the line.  I've also seen many "complaints" about swirl marks being left behind.  These result from either too coarse or skipping grits and from moving the sander too quickly across the surface, which appears to be the most common error.</div> <bR> <div> Let the sandpaper do the work for you; hand sanding requires very little downward pressure and when using a corded sander it's weight alone is enough.  Keeping the paper unclogged and the surface free from dust are critical to efficient and satisfying results.  If you find yourself having to apply downward pressure, the paper needs to be unclogged or changed.  Initial sanding is really a "no brainer"; you start with 80 or 100 grit to remove all mill marks and imperfections in the surface.  It's the subsequent progression through the grits that causes the most problems.  Keep the surface free from dust and be observant when you are sanding with the next grit.  The object is to remove all marks left by the previous grit, if you've missed a spot it will be very obvious when you wipe the dust off the surface with your hand; it will "fill" those imperfections.  This is one reason why I use my bare hand to wipe the dust and not a brush or vacuum.  When I'm satisfied, then I will vacuum the dust and proceed to the next grit.  When to stop sounds like another no brainer but it really isn't.  Most folks actually over sand.  As I stated above, wood does have "grit" too.  Sanding down to 220 on Red Oak is a total waste of time.  Using a random orbital one only need to go down to 150 grit; 180 when using a sanding block.  While some recommend wiping down the piece with a damp cloth to check for any sanding marks left prior to applying the finish, I'm opposed to that idea.  Even a damp cloth with mineral spirits can raise the grain (which you've just spent all this time trying to level) and can leave an incompatible residue with the final finish.  Use your hand to wipe the sanding dust off the board, then used the compressed air and vacuum if it meets your approval.  The sanding operation will go much quicker and will become a much more enjoyable process when done correctly.</div> <bR> <div> When sanding between film finish coats, I prefer silicon carbide paper to any other product other than pumice and rottenstone.  Steel wool is never used in my shop for finishing.  Its major drawback, as I see it, is the residue left behind.  The steel fibers can get imbedded in the piece, especially on the more opened grained woods.  In a lot of cases even a very thorough vacuuming and use of compressed air can not dislodge these fibers, on an exterior piece you run the risk of these fibers rusting which can really bum you out.</div> <bR> <div> That being said, my choice of grit and whether I use it wet or dry depends largely on the actual finish I'm sanding.  Generally speaking, I use 200 grit, dry, between coats, then use 320 or 400 grit, dry, on the second to last coat, always by hand and with a sanding block.  This is often referred to a "scuff sanding" to lightly abrade the film finish for a good bond for the next coat and to level any imperfections on the previous coat, a very light touch is the norm.  If I'm "rubbing out" using silicon carbide, I lube it with water, going down to 600 grit for a satin sheen, 1200 for semi-gloss.  I will always use compressed air, the shop vac, and a damp cloth to remove the residue.  Here I am very diligent and have been known to use a magnifying glass for inspection, particularly when preparing for the final coat.</div> <bR> <div> In closing, sanding is an acquired skill, though not one that I would call "refined" or one that requires a high level, it is a skill as I said from the outset.  One that is the very most basic and often times, the first one we learn.  It's my belief that because it is so basic, it's often the one we take for granted the most.  Even if all the other skills one possess are finely honed, this one, if not developed, is generally the most obvious when the project is finished.  By experimenting with the different types and grits on different woods species by hand, you can quickly apply those "lessons" to the corded sanders as well.  I will also share that sanding is probably the most "intimate" operation in working with wood other than applying a hand rubbed finish; it is here that we tend to caress the piece, feeling for any imperfections.  By using your non sanding hand to brush away the dust you will stay in touch with the operation, when sanding completely by hand it is very akin to hand planing; preparing you, perhaps, to acquire <I>that</I> skill.  It can be a very satisfying operation, one that can be looked forward to and not dreaded, one that at the very least can offer you time for contemplation, and at most give you great satisfaction and pride in a job well done.  Whether one chooses to sand, scrape, plane, or any combination thereof, learning how to sand is the first step.</div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B><U> <A NAME="the_plane_basics"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></U></B><B><U>The PLANE Basics</U></B></div> <bR> <div> Danford C Jennings</div> <bR> <div> Lately, there seems to have been a number of questions in regard to hand planes; things do seem to go in cycles.  Any who, it got me to thinking that even though I've made numerous postings in reply to specific questions concerning the subject, it would be most difficult to conduct a search here, in terms of the sheer number of "hits" one might get in doing such a search.  So, as is my want when I've had too much java late at night, I thought that I would offer up another "primer".  This one on hand plane basics.</div> <bR> <div> As I've noted here before, there does seem to be some sort of "mystique" on hand planes and their use.  This is something that is not unique to this forum, but in the "real" world as well. The hand plane <I>really</I> is a very basic tool and dates back to ancient Egyptian times.  In my case, a hand plane was the second tool I was taught to use, excluding a pencil and rule of course.  This was around the age of 4, for what ever that is worth, other than perhaps that if a 4 year old can learn to use one, so can you.</div> <bR> <div> There are numerous advantages to learning how to use a hand plane from accuracy that is not achievable by machine, the efficiency in preparing a surface for finishing, to the end result.  Not to mention the health issues and just the pure pleasure of feeling the wood through the plane.</div> <bR> <div> Hand planes can be classified into three major categories, bench, block, and specialty.  I will note that Mr. Hack would disagree; he lists 4 major categories.  Each of these can be broken down even further, the specialty planes having the greatest number of subdivisions.  For this primer I will speak mostly of the bench planes and blocks, though the "fundamentals" would apply to most all others.</div> <bR> <div> In my experience, the key to having success in their use is to first understand the cutting geometry for any given plane type, more on this as we go along.  Once this is understood, setting up the plane for use becomes very easy.  I've found that most who have difficulty set their planes improperly as a result of not being clear on <I>how</I> a plane is designed to work.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Bench Planes</B></div> <bR> <div> These are the hand planes most of us are familiar with; used for dimensioning and smoothing stock.  Most manufacturers of metallic planes follow the numbering "system" that Stanley Rule and Level used back in the 1860s; #1 through #4 ½ would be the smoothing planes, #5 through #5 ½ is the jack, #6 is a fore plane, and #7 and #8 are your jointers.  Typically, a bench plane's iron will be bedded at 45º (Common Pitch) with the bezel down sharpened at 25º.   Unfortunately, this angle of attack is really a compromise for general purpose use (we can all thank Stanley for this).   The higher the angle of attack for face grain work, the more efficient the slicing of the wood fibers becomes, up to about 60º.  Additionally, the end result will also be superior, particularly on highly figured stock.</div> <bR> <div> Your own success and satisfaction in using a bench plane will begin with the iron.  If it is not properly sharpened and honed, you are doomed to frustration.  It is imperative that iron be back lapped first.  This is done by first removing the cap iron (loosen the screw then rotate it 90º first then slide it up; you don't want to damage the iron's edge) flattening the back of the iron either on the stones or using sandpaper on glass.  This will ensure that once the bezel is established, sharpened, and honed; the cutting edge will be straight and consistent.  Once the iron is back lapped you shouldn't have to do it again.  I would recommend going down to a 4000 stone or 1200 grit silicon carbide if the so called "scary sharp" method is used.  The next step is to sharpen the bezel at 25º and then hone, again working down to the previously mentioned grits.  I like to put on a micro bezel on the irons of my bench planes.  A micro bezel is when you hone at a higher degree than the primary bezel, in my case that would be 30º.  While this does not necessarily improve the quality of the cut, it does save considerable time in sharpening/honing and removes far less steel from the iron.  Going this route, one needs only go down to about a 2000 stone or 400 grit silicon carbide when sharpening, then progress down to 4000/1200 when honing, I usually get around two or three dozen honings in before I have to sharpen.  On my smoothing planes, I will radius the corners to prevent tracking, the bezel is straight.  Since I use my jack for light thicknessing; its bezel has a slight crown of about 3/32nds.  The jointer's bezel is straight and 90º at the corners.  I "strop" the edge after honing by making slices on the face grain of a piece of Western Red Cedar; some use a leather razor strop.  When the iron can slice a single shaving off the end grain of a piece of pine or fir, it's sharp.  I don't recommend shaving your arms to test, but if you can, it's sharp.</div> <bR> <div> Once this is completed, you will need to fettle the cap iron it's self.  The cap iron serves two purposes; one is to stiffen the iron and more importantly to lift the shaving up and away from the mouth of the plane.  This is why some refer to the cap iron as the "chip breaker", though if you are getting chips your plane is either out of tune or your working with Gaboon Ebony.  The mating front edge of the cap iron should be perfectly flush with the iron, any gaps what so ever can cause the plane to choke.  I do this by using 200 grit silicon carbide (on the glass) with the back end slightly below the glass.  Aside from maybe incorrect depth setting, I've found that the lack of fettling and improper set up of the cap iron is the single largest cause of frustration for the beginning user.  The finer the cut, the closer to the iron's cutting edge is where it should be set.  For example; on my smoothing planes the cap irons will be anywhere from a 64th to a 32nd from the edge.  This too can vary somewhat depending on what type of wood I'm smoothing.  Regardless of the type of bench plane, it should never be more than an 8th from the iron's cutting edge.</div> <bR> <div> The other factor to ease of use is the depth of cut and mouth opening relationship.  The mouth is opened and closed by adjusting the frog.  It's very important that the shaving is supported as it's being sliced up and away from the surface.  If the mouth is open too much, you will get tear out and chattering not opened enough it the plane will choke.  The mouth opening should be just a hair over the amount of the depth of cut.  In other words, slightly more than the thickness of the shaving.</div> <bR> <div> Okay, now your plane is back together and set up, now for some technique.  First you will want to make sure that the board to be planed is secure on the bench at about belt buckle high.  A plane is driven mostly by the shoulders with the arms bent at the elbow at about 90º; you plane with the grain.  You begin by resting the toe of the plane on the stock, begin the drive with downward pressure on the toe, even out during the drive, and then end with downward pressure on the heel.  You want momentum going throughout the drive; any stops will cause a tear out.  It is always better to start with light cuts to get the feel of the board, then deepen the cut as confidence builds and/or you "get to know it".  One way to set up for the initial cut is to retract the iron, then turn the plane up side down and "sight" down the sole from the toe and adjust the iron until you see a black line about the thickness of a hair.  </div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Block Planes</U></B></div> <div> These little guys are used mostly for end grain work and are smaller than their larger brothers.  A block plane is normally use with one hand; it has no frog or cap iron.  The iron is bedded at 20º, regular, or 12º, low angle and the bezel is up, normally sharpened and honed at 25º.  Wood fibers are a lot like straw, so if a bench plane was used on end grain there would more of a crushing action than a slicing action.  Your lesser quality block planes will not have an adjustable mouth, so I always recommend folks to invest in one that does.  These little guys are very versatile and an entire "primer" could be written just on them alone.  Suffice to say there are a few misconceptions about them, particularly a regular angle block.  Because they are bedded at 20º and normally sharpened and honed at 25º, this will result in a 45º angle of attack, not very suitable for end grain.  But, if you sharpen and hone at 20º (which is the absolute minimum one should sharpen at) you end up with an angle of attack that will be 40º, which can work in a pinch on end grain.  Don't despair though because therein lies the versatility of the block plane.  Let's say you have a piece of stock that's "difficult" and you don't happen to have a Norris or Spires smoothing plane that has a York (50º) pitch or a Middle (55º) pitch.  What to do?  Well, whip out that little regular block that's sharpened and honed at 25º; just re-hone it at 30º for a York pitch or 35º to achieve a Middle pitch.  Then just touch up the difficult spot.  Slick, huh?</div> <div> Now then, the low angle block does excel on end grain because its bedded angle is 12º, with a bezel sharpened and honed at 25º that will equal a 37º angle of attack.  On any plane the angle of attack can be decreased without re-sharpening or re-honing.  This is done by skewing the plane as it's driven.  This is also something you want to remember when using a bench plane; normally you don't want to skew it when face planing.</div> <bR> <div> As with any thing, practice does go a very long way.  Each and every board you handle will have it's own unique character, in learning how to use a hand plane you will also quickly learn how to "read" a board.  The benefits gained by learning how to use these very basic tools far outweigh the short amount of time it takes to learn.  Your own wood working efforts will, in fact, be taken to a higher level in terms of quality, efficiency, and satisfaction.</div> <bR> <div> So, this little "primer" is by no means complete, it's intent is not only to get those interested or frustrated started.  This is also intended to generate questions and further discussion.  The rough sketch provided is for clarification.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG SRC="1f590fc0.gif" border=0 width="400" height="508" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <bR> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B><U> <A NAME="mortise_and_tenon_joinery"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></U></B><B><U>Mortise And Tenon Joinery</U></B></div> <bR> <div> Danford C Jennings</div> <bR> <div> Since the little primer on dovetails that I did awhile back was apparently well received, I thought that I would contribute a primer on mortise and tenons, hope you don't mind.</div> <div>  </div> <div> Mortise and tenon joinery is very basic in both cabinetry and furniture making and typically it is the stub tenon that is the first joint taught in a school or learning environment. Mortise and tenon joints are also one of the oldest joints that we know of; they date back to Ancient Egypt thousands of years past.</div> <div>  </div> <div> There are many different kinds of mortise and tenon joints and like any joint, each are designed for specific tasks where two pieces are joined and great strength is needed. The most commonly used mortise and tenon joints are the full blind stub tenon and the haunched tenon. The haunched tenon and secret haunched tenon is "seen" more in furniture making than in cabinetry. It is used mostly on furniture to join a rail into a leg or other vertical member. The haunch is necessary to reduce or eliminate the rail's tendency to twist under load. For this discussion, I will stick to the full blind stub tenon. All mortise and tenon work follows the same basic principles in their execution.</div> <div>  </div> <div> The elements of the tenon itself consist of the cheeks and the shoulders; it are the shoulders that make a tenon "blind" because they cover any sign of the mortise. The actual proportions of the tenon depend much on what it is being asked to do. As a rule of thumb the tenon's thickness should be slightly over a third of the thickness of the stock being used, it's length 2/3rds the width of the leg or stile which it is to be joined to. When doing a full blind stub tenon on cabinet work such as door frames, I prefer that the top shoulder be twice the depth of the bottom shoulder, this helps to reduce or eliminate any twist of the rail because of the larger glue surface on the top shoulder. Since a cabinet doorframe is only required to support itself, a haunched tenon rarely is required.</div> <div>  </div> <div> <B>Laying Out The Tenon</B> </div> <bR> <div> As with any joint, it's successful execution begins with the layout. I prefer using a mortise/tenon gauge, marking knife, and try or combination square for actual lay out; this is another case of where "the first cut, is the last." I begin by laying out the shoulders on the face with the marking knife and carrying the scribed line around the stock, then I set the mortise/tenon gauge pins to the correct thickness of the cheek, and the fence to the depth of the side shoulders. Keeping the fence registered against the "show" face I scribe the lines from the bottom shoulder to the end, across the end, and back down to the top shoulder.</div> <div>  </div> <div> <B>Cutting The Tenon</B> </div> <bR> <div> Cutting a tenon by hand is very straightforward and surprisingly simple, fast, and easy providing that your tenon (back) saw is well sharpened. I begin by cutting the cheeks; first with the stock firmly in the vise positioned for a comfortable stance and the piece at an angle of about 45°. The reason I do this is because it is much easier to cut "on the plumb"; as you will see you will be actually be making three separate cuts for the cheek. Begin the cut by placing the heel of the saw to save the line and draw it back a few times to establish the kerf. I use my forefinger or thumb as a guide, depending on the size of the tenon. Once the kerf has been establish begin your sawing strokes, letting the saw do the work. Cut down to save the line on the bottom shoulder, don't focus on where you are cutting; focus on where you want to end the cut. The hand will follow the eye. You will note that after this cut is completed that on the end it is only about half way across, this is the "object". Perform the same cut on the other face of the cheek in the same manner. When that cut is completed, reposition the piece at the same angle to cut down the top of the cheek's scribed lines in the same manner as described above. When you have completed those cuts, there will be essentially a "triangle that is holding the waste to the piece. Reposition the stock in the vice to vertical, line up the saw so that it comes into contact with both kerfs, and commence your cut, saving the line at the shoulder. This technique will ensure that a straight cheek cut has been made.</div> <div>  </div> <div> Next, remove the piece from the vice and firmly hold it down on the bench or clamp it down, face up. Using your finger or thumb as a guide, establish the kerf as above by beginning with the heel and drawing the saw back a few times, the saw should be at a slight angle. As you make the cut, bring the saw to level, making sure that the scribed line for the shoulder is saved. Flip the piece over and repeat. You now have a "tenon". At this point, I lay out the width of the tenon cheeks using a marking knife. Cut the bottom and top shoulders, saving all lines. When this is done, I place the stock vertically in the vice and cut the bottom and tops of the cheeks</div> <div> . </div> <div> When you look at the tenon, you will note that the scribed lines have left indentations around the tenon cheek and shoulders. These are your references for trimming. While this operation can be performed totally with paring chisels, providing that they are razor sharp, I recommend that a #92 or #93 shoulder plane be used; a shoulder plane makes much quicker work of it. Given that most here probably don't have one, I'll proceed under the assumption that paring chisels are in your tool kit and that they have been properly back lapped.</div> <div>  </div> <div> When trimming with a paring chisel, I recommend using one that is at least 1" wide. I prefer beginning on the cheeks; the chisel should be on the flat. The stock should be dogged or clamped down so the tenon overhangs the bench a tad. I begin on the end of the tenon, registering the chisel's cutting edge right on the scribed line with the handle slightly lower than the tenon. This will eliminate the chance for tear out and will take very light paring cuts. Once you have established a small area that is flat and to the line, trimming becomes quick and easy. To insure that the tenon cheek is perfectly flat, you will pare from all directions. When the cheeks are trimmed, I'll make paring cuts on the shoulders. With little practice, this can be done "free hand", if you are not confident of getting a perfect 90° paring cut, use a block clamped to the line as a guide. These paring cuts should yield a single shaving.</div> <div>  </div> <div> <B>Laying Out The Mortise</B> </div> <bR> <div> Basically, there are two methods for laying out the mortise (there are other, though less accurate "techniques" I suppose, I'll stick to what are most accurate and consistent). Using the mortise/tenon gauge used to lay out the tenons (with the same settings and fence registered against the show face) or by using the now finished tenon butted against the leg or stile as a template, using a framing square as a "jig" to insure squareness. Using the mortise/tenon gauge will require a degree of measuring precision to establish the top and bottom of the cuts, which would then be laid out using a try square and marking knife. The side cuts will be precise in that the pins and fence have not been moved from their previous settings in laying out the tenons. Personally, I prefer to use the finished tenon as the "template" with the marking knife. I find it much quicker and eliminates chance for error.</div> <div>  </div> <div> <B>Chopping Out The Mortise</B> </div> <bR> <div> Chopping out mortises by hand can, at first glance, appear to be a rather daunting task. In reality it's not at all difficult and quite enjoyable, given that the proper tools and techniques are used. Because a mallet is used to strike a chisel, it's best that mortising or firmer chisels are used. They are more stout than a paring chisel, which rarely if ever should be struck. Additionally, a mortise or firmer chisel will have a 30° bezel, the handle is designed to be struck, and it doubles as a lever to pry out the chips. The paring chisel should be reserved for paring, not chopping. After I've laid out the mortise, I will use a paring chisel to deepen the scribed lines, however.</div> <div>  </div> <div> I begin by taking the appropriate sized chisel for the task and strike "cross hatches" the length of the mortise, no deeper than the previously deepened scribe marks, pry out the waste, repeat the process of slightly deepening around the "perimeter" of the mortise with the paring chisel. Once I've established a mortise depth of around 3/8ths, I repeat the process of establishing the sides of the mortise with the mortise chisel, it's back registered against the side, perfectly 90° to the surface, giving the chisel a couple of firm blows. Then the cross chops are made; the waste pried out, and the above process repeated, so on and so forth until the final depth is reached. As a note, I make the mortise depth about 1/16th deeper than the length of the tenon. In doing this, a "reservoir" for any excess glue is created thereby reducing the amount of squeeze out. I then "smooth" the walls of the mortise with the paring chisel making extremely light cuts with a paring chisel.</div> <div>  </div> <div> A mortise and tenon joint properly executed should require firm hand pressure to join it with the shoulders perfectly flush and a few light raps of the mallet to separate.</div> <div>  </div> <div> In closing, I'd like to point out that "step by step" instructions can sometimes give the appearance of complexity by their length. Knowing that my writing skills are lacking, I've attempted to keep this primer as short and concise as possible. My apologies if it is unclear, I'll make every attempt to answer those who have questions. I can assure you that the full blind stub mortise and tenon is very easy to master. Once done so, any mortise and tenon joint can be executed with confidence, precision, and elan. </div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B><U> <A NAME="jointer_techniques"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></U></B><B><U>Jointer Techniques</U></B></div> <bR> <div> Danford C Jennings</div> <bR> <div> Some time ago I had posted a "primer" on jointer technique and after conducting a search in response to a question, I see that the "discussion" where I posted this has been removed.  Any who, I thought I'd take a few minutes to compose this little "primer".</div> <bR> <div> Jointers really are more versatile than most folks understand.  But, their primary function is to flatten stock; removing cups, warps, and twists on the face(s) in addition to removing any warp and/or bow to the edge.  In England jointers are referred to as "over hand planers", essentially they are a motorized plane.  Regardless, the importance in using four squared and consistently dimensioned stock is fundamental to the success of any project; the more complex the project, the more important this fundamental becomes.  It is for this reason that I consider the jointer to be one of, if not <I>the</I>, most important tool in the shop.</div> <bR> <div> Naturally, ensuring that the jointer is set up correctly is paramount to its accurate performance.  The machine's owner's manual will tell you exactly how to check that the infeed/outfeed tables are coplanar, in parallel, depth of cut, etc, and make the requisite adjustments.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Sizing Rough Lumber</B></div> <bR> <div> Any given bunk of stock will have fairly straight boards but most will have some degree of flaws; cups, bows, warp, and twist.  This is where the jointer comes in to deal with these flaws.  The "objective" being to eliminate them and still have the thickness needed.  Obviously, stock selection goes a very long way in reducing the amount of jointing that is required and this should be kept in mind when selecting your stock.</div> <bR> <div> In my shop, the first step to sizing rough stock is to cross cut to slightly oversize lengths following my cut list.  This begins with cutting off any ends that have splits or any other defect, at least an inch beyond the defect.  I always start with the longest lengths off the cut list to minimize waste, using stock with the least amount of defect.  I would strongly advise against jointing any thing less than 16", particularly if there are severe defects, for safety concerns.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Face jointing</B></div> <bR> <div> This is the first step to four squaring and dimensioning your stock.  Check the board over to plan your "strategy".  At this juncture, ensuring that the fence is square to the tables is really no biggie; personally, I make sure it is just out of habit.  The fence should be set to a width slightly wider than the board to be face jointed.   I set my depth of cut slightly less than the maximum depth for the width of the board indicated in the owner's manual.  My last pass will be at 1/64th. </div> <bR> <div> Boards that are cupped or warped should be jointed with the concave side down; this greatly reduces the chance of the board rocking as it is fed.  This first pass is crucial; the same plane must be maintained as the board is jointed, failing to do so will cause you to "chase" the flat, and you will more than likely end up with kindling.  For a board that has some twist, rock the board on the infeed table before you start to find the "flat" against the fence, then feed maintaining the same plane.</div> <bR> <div> You begin feeding the stock by applying slight downward pressure with your left hand, feeding with your right using your push block.  Feed rate will depend on width of stock and depth of cut, a rule of thumb being about 1ft/sec to 2ft/sec, highly figured woods should be slower.  As the stock is fed, keep slight pressure with the left hand and allow the knives of the cutter head to "pull" the stock down and against the fence.  Pressure must be even and consistent; the knives will not always come in contact with the stock.  When the right hand is about a foot from the cutter head, gradually apply all the downward pressure to the outfeed table, resist any temptation to apply downward pressure on the infeed, as doing so will cause snipe.  On longer boards you'll need to learn the "jointer shuffle", which is a rather goofy looking piece of footwork, where you "drag" your left foot forward and drag your right foot to the spot your left vacated.  You should never cross one foot over the other.  This will cause the downward pressure to change and an accident can also result.</div> <bR> <div> The actual number of passes depends entirely on the severity of the defect you are trying to eliminate.  If you also have a thicknesser, the object really isn't to obtain a perfectly smooth surface, just one that is flat enough so that a parallel plane can be maintained as it is fed into the thicknesser.  If you don't have a thicknesser, flatness still is the main objective and smoothness is a secondary one.  Regardless, remember you are dimensioning the stock not preparing it for the finish, so it is always a good idea to leave a little "extra".</div> <bR> <div> What if I need to face joint an 8" wide board but my jointer is a 6"?  Easy.  Set the fence slightly over 4" and joint using two passes, swapping end for end.  In this case I find that by jointing the convex face first to be the preferred method, applying more pressure against the fence, maintaining the same plane.  In trying to joint a wider board concave side down, the board becomes more difficult to maintain on plane because one edge is lower than the tables.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Edge jointing</B></div> <bR> <div> This operation is much easier than face jointing; you have less surface area to remove and you have a flattened surface to press against the fence.  At this point, it is imperative that the fence is perpendicular to the tables.  Pressing the board tightly against the fence will ensure that the jointed edge is square to the jointed face.  Before you begin sight down the board's edge to determine which edge is straightest and joint that edge.  On bowed stock, begin by running the ends over the cutter head, then run the board through full length.  </div> <bR> <div> Hand positioning and footwork are basically the same as face jointing and because less wood is being removed the feed rate can be increased.  What is most important is that you don't rely on the weight of the board to keep it on edge, you must make certain that the jointed face is tight against the fence.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Final comments</B></div> <bR> <div> You now have one surface and one edge that are perpendicular to one another.  The board can be ripped to rough length by placing the jointed face on the TS and the jointed edge registered against the fence.  Or you can now joint the other edge, then dimension to final thickness either on the jointer or thicknesser.  If you do final dimension using the jointer, keeping count of number of passes per board is strongly recommended for consistency, as is the use of a vernier caliper or micrometer.</div> <bR> <div> When ever possible joint with the grain, use a consistent feed rate, and when edge jointing for glue ups, take no more than a 32nd.  Most importantly, work safe.  If the jointer is "new" to you make some dry runs first to get the hand positioning and foot work down.</div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B><U> <A NAME="hand_cut_dovetails"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></U></B><B><U>Hand Cut Dovetails</U></B></div> <bR> <div> Danford C Jennings</div> <bR> <div> Recently there was a discussion on hand saw sharpening, as is normal in forums threads sometimes take on a life of their own.</div> <div>  </div> <div> Any who, hand cut dovetails came up and I made mention that they really are not that difficult a joint to execute. I do recall posting a message on this joint but it's buried somewhere in another discussion. So, I offered to post a "primer" on how I execute dovetail joints if there was any interest, judging from a couple of postings in the above mentioned thread and my e-mail, that interest is there. Rarely do I start a discussion, other than in the "Just Talking" folder; hope I'm not out of line by posting this primer.</div> <div>  </div> <div> Dovetails are an interlocking joint used primarily to join two pieces at the end grain; some exceptions would be a carcass dovetail, sliding dovetail, and the showcase joint to name a few. Dovetail joints have tremendous strength as a result of the tails having a slope that interlock into a corresponding socket and pins. Typically, a slope of 1:5 is used for carcass work, 1:7 for drawer work, and 1:8 for very fine decorative work. There are lay out templates that can be purchased, or they can be shop made; I use and adjustable bevel. Once some degree of proficiency is acquired, you will be able to set the adjustable bevel by eye.</div> <div>  </div> <div> There are a wide variety of dovetail joints from the through dovetail to the showcase joint. For this discussion I'll stick to the through and the half blind.</div> <bR> <div> As is generally the case in working with wood, one's success begins with laying out. In joinery, precision is a must. I use a marking knife for all my laying out. My teacher told me, "Dano, the firsta cut isa the lasta cut." This makes very good sense when you consider that you will be finishing the joint with a paring chisel, as you will see. I will also mention here that a dovetail is <I>not</I> "chopped", ever; it is cut.</div> <div>  </div> <div> So, the tools I use are the above mentioned adjustable bevel and marking knife, try square, a dovetail saw, and paring chisels. Cutting dovetails is a ripping operation, so make sure that your dovetail saw has a rip tooth set, some don't.</div> <div>  </div> <div> <B>LAYING OUT THE TAILS</B></div> <bR> <div> I prefer laying out and cutting the tails first, others prefer laying out the sockets first; to each his own, I'm not here to debate which is best. I find that by cutting the pins first, it is easier, quicker, and more accurate to lay out the sockets from the cut tails. The two sides that are to be joined do not have to be of the same thickness but each must be consistent across the grain and parallel along the grain. Your stock must be perfectly four squared and the ends perfectly squared as well.</div> <div>  </div> <div> Before actual lay out begins, number of tails and spacing must be determined allowing for 1/2 a pin on either side. Again, as one gains proficiency, the eye can be trusted but a novice or beginner should use the following. In laying out the tails I start with what will be the <I>inside corner</I>, you don't want any lay out markings on the outside of the piece. For through dovetails, the base line is the exact thickness of the "front" piece, I scribe this mark by standing the side on end and butting the front piece up against it, all against the fence on my table saw so I have a perfect right angle. For a half blind dovetail, the base line should be about 3/4ths the thickness of the front piece's thickness, use your try square to scribe this line. Scribed with a marking knife, this first cut will also become your last….</div> <div>  </div> <div> That being done; let's use a 1/2" pin thickness, at the end, and say that you want 5 tails. On the face measure in from the side 1/4" (half the pin) and make a "dot" using a hard lead and sharp pencil, repeat for the opposite side. Registering the try square on the end, line the blade up on the dot and very lightly scribe a line with the pencil, repeat on the other side. Now, take a rule, line the corner of the scale on one line then line up the "5" on the other line, the rule will be at an angle (unless the stock is 5 1/2" wide) make a light dot with the pencil at each whole number marking on the scale. Using your square, line the blade up to each dot and lightly scribe the line. These lines are the centerlines of the pins. Take your adjustable bevel (set up to the desired slope) or template, line it up 1/4" to the side of the centerline of the pin (end) scribe that line using a marking knife to the base line. Do this on both sides of the centerlines. The result will be that you now have 5 dovetails equally spaced laid out on the face. Using your marking knife and square, carry those lines across the end grain.</div> <div>  </div> <div> <B>CUTTING THE TAILS</B> </div> <bR> <div> Position the piece in the vise tilted to one side so that the slopes of the tails are plumb. I find it much easier to cut a straight line when that line is plumb, than by trying to follow a slope by "twisting" the saw. The height of the work piece should be such that when you rest the blade of the saw on the edge your fore arm should form a right angle to the upper arm or a slightly obtuse angle. The point being that a comfortable position should be taken. I'm right handed so I position my self slightly less than my left arm's length away, with my left foot forward of my right, it's heel about in line with the ball of my right foot, and feet about shoulder width apart. Again you want to be positioned comfortably and well balanced so you can concentrate on the cut. </div> <div> I use my left index finger as a guide for the saw. Line up the heel of the saw to save the line and pull the saw back a couple of times to start the kerf. Use just enough pressure to keep the saw from "bouncing". Once you have the kerf established, start cutting with the toe slightly up, and then bring down to level as the cut proceeds. Let the saw do the cutting, don't force it and use long strokes. The saw should be level when you stop the cut, saving the base line. Finish cutting the slopes that are plumb. Readjust the work piece in the vise so the other slopes are plumb and proceed as before. Remember, <I>save the lines</I>.</div> <div>  </div> <div> As a little tip; trust your eyes. Don't focus on where you are cutting; focus on where the cut will end. Your hand will follow your eyes.</div> <div>  </div> <div> Now, the first cut becomes the last…..Remove the work piece from the vise and clamp it down on your work bench so that you can comfortable pare with you chisels. If you are not sure that you can hold the chisel so that the paring cuts are square to the face, use a squared block of wood clamped across the piece with it's edge to the scribed mark on the work piece side. Register the back of your chisel against the block and make your paring cut. A mallet should not be necessary, the chisel should be honed such that a single cut can be made just by pushing downward and a single shaving should result. Finish paring the base line and proceed to the slopes of the tails. Once again I will point out that once proficiency is obtained the need for a guide block will not be necessary.</div> <div>  </div> <div> <B>LAYING OUT THE SOCKETS</B></div> <div>  </div> <div> For through dove tails, I use the same procedure as laying out the base line of the tails with the exception that the pieces are reversed and a squared block is used on the "inside" corner (which when assembled is really the outside corner). I use the marking knife and the tails as the template for the sockets.</div> <div>  </div> <div> For half blind, I use the same basic procedure except that I will clamp the front piece to the bench so it's end is flush with the bench top. I clamp the sidepiece on the bench top so the base cut is on the inside edge of the front piece. Then use the tails as the socket template and scribe with the marking knife. The base line of the front piece is the thickness of the sidepiece, and is scribed in the same manner as described in laying out the tails.</div> <div>  </div> <div> <B>CUTTING THE SOCKETS</B></div> <div>  </div> <div> For through dove tails the cutting procedure is identical as cutting out the tails with the exception that since all the cuts are plumb; there is no need to position the work piece in the vise to adjust for a plumb cut. However, you will want to position your body for a straight line cut. Remember, <I>save the line</I>. Paring is done in a similar way but they do have a slope. So, if you use a guide block for them make sure it's bezel is precisely the same. </div> <div> For half blind dovetails, the procedure is essentially the same. But, you will be sawing to two lines; the base line and the top line (the ends of the tails). Because the sockets are the same size as the tails, I will make several cuts across the width of the socket, <I>after</I> the slopes have been cut. Remember, <I>save all lines</I>. Paring the sockets for half-blind dovetails is fairly straightforward. The main difference is that you will use a mallet to lightly tap the base line cut to be deeper. Use a block as previously described for a guide. But, you will pare back from the end to the base line, then deepen the baseline cut, pare, deepen, pare…..until you get to the top line. The work piece should be clamped down to the work surface. </div> <bR> <div> <B>FITTING</B></div> <div>  </div> <div> Done with precision, a dovetail joint should fit perfectly without adjustments by lightly rapping them together with a mallet. Do not force the joint together. If adjustments are needed lightly rap the joint apart with the mallet, check where it is binding, then make a very light paring cut with your chisel. When making the final adjustments <I>never</I> try to twist or rack the pieces apart, tap them apart gently.</div> <div>  </div> <div> In closing, while this may appear to be long, the actual procedures are not as complicated as this may make them appear. I would suggest practicing on the through dovetail. The key to executing this joint, or any joint for that matter, is in laying out. If the lay out is precise and patience is used, you will have gained satisfaction, enjoyment, and knowledge on this very useful and decorative joint. Practice will also help you to gain "muscle memory" and in short time it can be laid out with nothing more than a marking knife, adjustable bevel, and square. You will be able to cut this joint with a saw and paring chisel, all in very short order. </div> <bR> <div> As some may know, I've been helping a neighbor of mine with his wood working efforts. After a 15 minute explanation, similar to this, then a small demonstration Dave laid out and executed a 5 dovetail joint on 6" wide boards, start to finish, in less than 30 minutes. These were the first dovetails that he had ever cut in his life. There were some adjustments but I was still proud of him, nonetheless.</div> <div>  </div> <div> Challenge yourselves and learn <I>all</I> of the dovetail joints. The satisfaction and pride one attains from using the secret mitered dovetail to fabricate a cornice for an armoire or china hutch, attached to the carcass with sliding dovetails without the use of a single nail or corner block cannot be described. These joints are not that difficult once the fundamentals of the dovetail are learned. No one but you will ever know that you executed them, but the joints will never fail.</div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B><U> <A NAME="cutting_to_the_chase___handsaws"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></U></B><B><U>Cutting to the Chase - Handsaws</U></B></div> <bR> <div> Danford C Jennings</div> <bR> <div> In a previous primer, "True Grit", I mentioned an e-mail exchange with a colleague in regard to the basic fundamentals of working with wood which prompted its' composition.  I was greatly surprised by the number of folks who viewed that discussion, I hope this one is received equally as well.</div> <bR> <div> As I've often said, I carry a strong belief that the acquisition and honing of ones hand skills not only carries over into machine operations but also, the sense of accomplishment is significantly enhanced.  In discussions relating to hand planes I frequently mention that they were the second tools I was taught to use.  The first, never having been mentioned, was the "handsaw".</div> <bR> <div> <B>Nomenclature</B></div> <bR> <div> Generally speaking, a "hand saw" is a pretty generic term, there are many specific types.  What is commonly referred to as a "hand saw" is actually a panel saw used for general use.  They do come in various lengths with either a skew back or straight back, made of spring steel, with a full handle.  The tip of the blade is the toe; the rear end referred to as the heel, and the top edge as its back.  The teeth are ground and set for either cross cuts or rip cuts and they will vary in number of teeth per inch (tpi).  The more teeth per inch the finer the cut.  </div> <bR> <div> Back saws would include any hand saw that has a brass or metal reinforcement strip along its' back to stiffen the blade for precision.  The dovetail, tenon, carcass, mitre, gent, and veneer are all backsaws.  Their specific designations are mostly a function of their actual size, tooth set, and number of teeth per inch.  With the exception of the veneer saw, all back saws will have a squared toe and heel with a straight cutting edge, a veneer saw's cutting edge is curved, rockered, and the teeth do not have a set.  Traditionally, a dovetail saw has a hardwood half handle and a rip grind (at least 20 tpi), some have a turned handle, since executing a dovetail joint is a ripping operation.  In reality, a cross cut "dovetail saw" is a tenon saw.  The tenon saw is usually larger than the dovetail, coming in both cross and rip cut grinds.  This is because execution of a tenon involves both operations, typically they will have 15-20 tpi.  A carcass saw is very similar to the tenon, it's distinction being that the teeth are coarser (less tpi) and used in carcass work where the joinery is not so fine.  The mitre saw is the gran' daddy of the backsaws and I know of no manufacture that still makes a true mitre back saw.  These guys have a blade length in the neighborhood of 20 - 24 inches, a blade height of up to 10".  They were used in a mitre box for cutting trim such as crown mouldings and casings and will typically have 15-20 tpi.  Nobex does manufacture two sizes of mitre saws, which resemble a hacksaw on guides.  I will note that in my humble opinion, the Nobex mitre saw is superior to any mitre saw, hand or corded, on the market today.  The gent and the veneer saws are the munchkins of the backsaw family.  The gent is smaller than the dove, has a turned handle, usually 20 tpi with no set.  They are used for very fine dovetail work and other fine joinery work.  The veneer, as previously mentioned, has a rockered cutting edge, over 20 tpi (mine's 28 I recall), no set, a turned handle, and are about 6" in length.  Its use is for cutting veneer and the rockered edge facilitates precision and cutting radii.</div> <bR> <div> We now come to the "jig saws" which are the coping and fret saws.  A coping saw is used in finish carpentry mostly on profiled trim work, jointing the pieces on inside corners.  The coping saw has an upside down "U" shaped frame that holds a very narrow and thin 6" long blade (usually around 12 tpi) under tension and has a turned handle.  The fret saw is almost identical to the coping saw, except that the frame is typically made of heavier steel and the frame is much taller than its' cousin for reaching deeper into the boards' face.  As its name implies, it is used for fretwork mostly in the furniture trade.  Fretwork consists mostly of applied mouldings where elaborate inside and outside cuts are made.  Now days most folks refer to this as "scroll work."</div> <bR> <div> Lastly, but certainly not least, where wood workers are concerned, is the bow saw.  The bow saw is quite possibly the oldest type of hand saw and is still the preferred handsaw by the European artisans of today.  This too has a frame only it is made of a hardwood such as Ash or Red Beech; in the shape of an "H", the thin blade is tensioned between the two bottom legs.  There is not a standard size, some have a turned handle, and some have none.  Tension is applied by means of twisting a stranded cord of leather or waxed cotton, with a wooden "tongue" between them resting against the cross piece.  The blades come in a wide variety of widths and tpi and these saws are extremely accurate and, in my opinion, easier to use and control than a panel saw.  Like any thing, though, they do take some practice getting used to.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Tooth Set</B></div> <bR> <div> Tooth set actually refers to the actual lateral set of the teeth; grind refers to the shape.  Both cross cut and ripsaws will have a set, the rip saw has less set than a cross cut and the set assists in chip ejection.  The actual grind determines the intended operation.  A rip saw is designed to cut with the grain, the faces of the teeth are at 8º and the back at 52º, sharpened flat across the face, they resemble a chisel and actually work as such.  Each tooth working independent of one another cutting the wood, the following teeth plowing the cut clean.  The cross cut saw will have teeth that have a 15º face and 45º back, with the face and back edges beveled at around 24º resembling a series of knife points.  The set is greater than that of a rip and the cutting action of a crosscut is more of a slicing of the fibers by the point, then pared by the rest of the edge.  Essentially, the points score the fibers first on a cross cut saw for efficiency.  The kerf of a ripsaw will be square with a flat bottom; the kerf of a crosscut will be square with a "pyramid" on the bottom.</div> <bR> <div> As a little exercise on the importance and ease of using the right tool for the job take a paring chisel and slice off a shaving going with the grain on a piece of scrap along its face (a rip cut).  Now repeat the process going across the grain (cross cut with a rip blade).  Notice the effect on the fibers, big difference, huh?   You can also reverse the process to simulate a cross cut, by scoring two lines first then paring out the middle with the chisel to get a clear understanding on how the teeth of a saw blade work.  Or you could simply try to rip a board with a cross cut panel saw and/or cross cut a board with a rip; the "dynamics" and results will quickly become apparent.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Technique</B></div> <bR> <div> Yup, there actually is a right way and a wrong way to cut a board using a hand saw.  For this portion I'll stick mainly to the panel saw, though some techniques can be applied to any type of hand saw.  Firstly, the work piece should be secured in some manner at a height around knee high.  Personally, I prefer to use a pair of saw horses where I can hold down the board with my left knee (I'm right handed).  For a rip or cross cut on a board when "rough" dimensioning I use an awl or marking gauge to scribe my marks and I carry them down the edges.  The reason I do this is because a well tuned handsaw will actually track in the scribed mark.  The important thing here is to have a comfortable, well balanced stance that won't restrict the arm and shoulder movement while sawing.</div> <bR> <div> For a crosscut, the saw teeth should be at a 45º angle to the surface being cut, for a rip it should be at 60º.  The most common mistake made when using the panel saw is sawing at the improper angle, the blade bounces, catches, skips, and just generally makes it a less than smooth operation.   I hold the saw firmly but comfortably with my index finger pointed along the side for more accuracy.  To start a cut, start at the heel of the saw drawing it back towards you three or four times using your thumbnail or knuckle of your non sawing hand as a guide with moderate downward pressure so the saw won't bounce.  Use only the first six inches of the heel to establish the kerf until you are about a quarter of an inch into the wood, more if you are brand new, before you start full strokes.  You'll find that as your skills improve, just a few pulls on the saw is all you'll need before you commence the full chorus.  The saw stroke begins with pull or up stroke, just the weight of the saw, the down, or what I call the power stroke, is done mostly with the upper arm and shoulder.  You want to keep the wrist firm, set up a good rhythm, and think of your whole arm as a piston.  Doing so will apply a natural down ward pressure on the power stroke making for quick and efficient sawing.  The important thing is to let the saw do the cutting; you are just providing the "horses".  A beginner needs to keep an eye on both the back of the saw (for plumb) and ahead of the mark as well, so take your time.  Once proficiency is gained you will have gained the muscle memory for plumb and all that is needed is to pay attention to the mark.  Once you're into the stock use full strokes, this would be at least 3/4 the length of the blade, finishing with the "power" in the final quarter (towards the heel).  What will cause the blade to wander is applying too much power when it's near the toe.  If you do start to drift take immediate action by steering the saw back to the mark using the toe, get back on line, and then back into your rhythm.  As the cut nears completion, it's important that you support the cutoff piece so the board doesn't splinter when it drops off.  On a long rip cut, the saw will sometimes bind as internal tension is released, so it's always a good idea to have a #8d finish or wedge in your apron to act as a "splitter".  The cut is always made going with the grain.  'Course you can cut against it, but it's more difficult and the results aren't as good.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Tips & Tricks o' the Trade</B></div> <bR> <div> The first tip is to make sure you are working with well tuned saws, not doing so will only cause disappointment and frustration.  Mine see almost daily use, so not only are they regularly sharpened but waxed as well, they never come in contact with another material besides wood and paste wax, and are put back where no tension what so ever is placed on the blade.  To keep this from getting away in length, here's a link for more information on saw maintenance; http://www.vintagesaws.com.</div> <bR> <div> Another tip is to practice, if you have trouble ensuring the blade is plumb, use a tall block as a guide.  As I said, the muscle memory will come with practice.  "Practice" can consist of just going out and making sawdust with scrap or it can be grabbing a saw off the wall to make a single cut of a piece in progress, instead of firing up "the monster".  Another suggestion would be to find a small project such as a night stand or small book case and resolve to do it entirely by hand, no corded tools allowed.  The confidence and pride that results will amaze you.</div> <bR> <div> I don't know of many "tricks" to rectify a board that's been cut too short, but here's one if it's been cut a tad too long.  To cut a thin slice, take a piece of scrap, scribe a line on the scrap piece, then place the miss-cut piece on top of it and back from the side edge of the scrap a few inches, aligning the work piece's edge parallel to the line with the "waste" over the line.  Begin your cut on the scrap's scribe mark and continue cutting until you have "sliced" off the waste, just make sure the work piece is secured to the scrap.</div> <bR> <div> For a bevel cut, scribe your marks on the face and the angle on the edge.  Take a 2 x 4 and clamp it the necessary distance away from the face mark and it can now be used as a guide when the saw blade touches the top corner.</div> <bR> <div> In some parts of the country, most notably the hills of Appalachia and the Ozarks, the panel saw is used as a musical instrument by flexing the blade in "S" curves.  Admittedly this is one art form I've yet to master and would not recommend using a vintage Disston or high quality saw to learn this art on.  For now, I'm content with its natural music imparted when sawing a board.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Final Thoughts</B></div> <bR> <div> Aside from sanding, I believe that using a handsaw is the most basic and fundamental operation in working with wood.  The ability to cut a straight line is so basic, in fact, that in the trades ones' inability to cut one is the cause of tremendous derision and ridicule.  It is certainly one of the first things taught.  That being said, this particular hand skill is the foundation upon which all other hand skills are built on.  It promotes the hand/eye coordination necessary for those skills, the rapid acquisition of muscle memories for other hand skills, it carries over to machinery, and certainly promotes the understanding of the basic dynamics that are involved in cutting a piece of wood.</div> <bR> <div> Then of course, there are the more intrinsic values.  The sense of pride, the unique "song" that the saws hums back to you, and actually feeling the inner character of the piece being worked on.  Yes, each board has it's own character and it are these very subtle nuances of the medium, accumulated over time, the sum of which helps us better understand the working properties of wood fully.  This total understanding can only be acquired through handwork.  It can't be learned by reading a book, or lifted from a web page.  Your senses become honed to the point that when you can pick up a raw board, you [i]know[/i] it's the right one.  You become totally attuned to what's happening to that board as it's run over the jointer or through the table saw just by a barely perceptible change in pitch of sound.  Handwork forces you to be patient, to be aware, to plan ahead.  If you are lucky, you begin to appreciate the efforts of those who came before us and your own efforts more as well.  Then you will have the ability to pass those skills on to a son, daughter, grandson, or even the little shaver down the street who drops into your shop out of curiosity.  In my view, the true measure of a craftsman is not so much as what he knows, but what he passes on to others.</div> <bR> <div> Regardless of your methods and approach used in working with wood, the lack of honed hand skills may or may not make you any less of a wood worker.  But by not having them, I can say with certainty, that you will miss a very large part of the joy and challenge of your craft.  So for those who don't yet have a hand saw or three in your arsenal, go out to a garage sale or flea market and resurrect an old Disston D-8 and put that ol' girl to use.  For those that do have some hanging on a wall somewhere, knock off the rust by sawing a board, you'll end up bringing forth a few cherished recollections and perhaps even a sense of renewal.</div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B><U> <A NAME="cherry_blotching"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></U></B><B><U>Cherry Blotching</U></B></div> <bR> <div> Danford C Jennings</div> <bR> <div> In this forum and others there seems to be a lot of questions asked about Cherry blotching. Having never experienced this phenomenon in almost 40 years in working with wood, I thought I would share how I have avoided this problem because I really don't think that I could be that lucky.</div> <bR> <div> As with any wood, surface preparation, in my humble opinion, is the most critical yet often over looked due to impatience in getting the project done, tediousness of the operation, or lack of knowledge. When ever possible I avoid abrading (sanding) and use hand planes and scrapers. The primary reason that I do this is that regardless of how fine the grit is you will still end up "roughing" the wood fibers as opposed to slicing them. By abrading the wood, I feel that one leaves them selves open to problems in the application of stain and/or finish. Only until all surfaces have a glass smooth appearance will I move on to the next operation.</div> <bR> <div> Cherry is one of the few woods where sapwood and heartwood is not only acceptable but desirable as well. Because of the scarcity of Black Cherry in my neck of the woods, I have incorporated the use of stain and "sun tanning." Since I do live in an area where there is frequent sunshine I will darken the pieces by laying them out in the sun before after surface preparation for about 4 - 6 hours.</div> <bR> <div> I use Minwax Cherry Stain (#235) which is an oil-based stain that they claim is also a sealer. I brush the stain on with medium loading going with the grain. I work the stain in by going across the grain and then with the grain. I will let the stain stand for about 10-20 minutes depending on the weather. The temperature determines length of time. After the stain has set, I use a clean 100% cotton "rag" (old T-shirt) and wipe off the excess stain. If you buy your rags make sure they are lint free. Some outlets sell packaged remnants of 100% cotton T-shirts and skivvies, I have found that these are no good for applying finish since they still contain the sizing. A better term to use might be "rub out." I will go with the grain first with moderate pressure, then use a circular motion with the same pressure, then will use a very light pressure, going with the grain, to "feather" or blend so the surface is "uniform" in shading or tone, if you will.</div> <bR> <div> After letting the stained piece dry for 24 hours, I am now ready to apply the finish. On high end pieces I French polish but, typically I use Minwax Wipe On Poly in a satin or semi-gloss. When this product arrived here a few years back, I was skeptical. After some experimentation I was impressed enough to incorporate this product into my finish operations. Minwax advises against the use of tack cloths with this product and I am here to tell you that it is good advice. Tack cloths do leave a small amount of residue behind that will affect the final finish. I vacuum and use compressed air to clean the piece prior to finish and sanding between coats. I recommend against the use of #0000 steel wool because of the deposits left behind.</div> <bR> <div> I apply the finish, again using a clean 100% cotton "rag", wiping it on in a circular motion in sections about 2' square and then go with the grain. It is important to work quickly, feathering each section into the last section. I use 220 or 320 grit aluminum oxide with a very light touch between coats. At 70° F drying time, sanding, is about 4-6 hours. Minwax recommends 3-4 coats; I usually go with 6. I sand the second to last coat with 600 grit silicon (dry) with a very light touch.</div> <bR> <div> The first project that I did using Minwax Wipe On, was my on my kitchen cabinets almost 5 years ago. It has proven to be an extremely durable finish.</div> <div> In conclusion, I would say that using the above techniques should eliminate any "blotching" as it is a technique that I have been using for over 25 years as a professional, with the exception of using Minwax Wipe On Poly.  For those who might be skeptical, find a piece of Cherry with both heartwood and sapwood and try it, you will be satisfied.</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> </td> </tr></table></body>