Introduction to Research
Research is
"... an attempt to increase the sum of what is
known, usually referred to as ‘a body of knowledge’, by the discovery of new
facts or relationships through a process of systematic inquiry, the research
process".
(Macleod Clark and Hockey 1989 cited by Cormack 1991
p4)
It involves the application of a structured research process in order to answer research questions or challenge a research hypothesis. In attempting to answer research
questions or discover whether a research hypothesis can be supported, we employ a research design and research
method and apply an ethical code.
The highlighted terms are those that are identified as
key concepts for the first session of the Research & Research Awareness Theme. Click
on any of the terms to read more about that subject.
Within Research and Research Awareness Theme sessions we
use a lot of words that may have alternative meanings.
If you refer back to the handbook, you will see that each
session outline is accompanied by a list of words or key concepts for exploration.
Outline content of first four sessions.
Session 1 is largely introductory and the concepts that
are addressed here will be revisited more fully later in the course.
Session
2 focuses on "quantitative" approaches to research and gives an overview of
some of the terms used in this approach.
Session
3 has "qualitative" research as its focus as well as introducing the project
work which you will follow for the remainder of the CFP.
As of session three, we get into group
work on projects. For every CFP R&RA session thereafter, students will need to
bring their project work to the session.
Session
4 sees the commencement of the project work proper. You will be getting set up for the
projects through undertaking the preliminary steps of the research process.
Why do we have a Research & Research
Awareness Theme in the course?
The primary aim of this theme is to enable you, as
nurses, to be able to understand research.
Although it would be useful if we could equip you with
skills that would enable you to undertake research, that is not the explicit aim of the
theme.
Question: Why do you think we want
nurses to be able to understand research?"
Possible answers include:
To improve nursing practice
To enhance patient care
To enable change
To enable them to judge a piece of
research and therefore know if it can be applied in the particular situation
To enable nursing to become a
"profession"
As nurses we need to be sure that the research on which
we base our practice is truthful and that the producers of the research have not used some
form of "statistical magic" to gain the findings that they present.
We have to understand that sometimes the motive for doing
a piece of research is less than pure. It was hardly a surprise that the butter promoting
people found butter no more harmful than margarine. It is also no surprise that
manufacturers of certain wound dressings can find "evidence" that their
dressings are better than those of competing manufacturers.
In order to decide whether a piece of research should be
accepted and used, we have to know about particular aspects of that research.
What do we
mean when we refer to the research process?
Research Process: refers to the series and sequence
of steps followed in research
Essentially the steps include:
 |
Preparing a research proposal |
|
Gaining access to the research
site |
|
Research Design |
|
Data collection |
|
Data handling |
|
Reporting and disseminating
research |
|
Moral issues in nursing
research. |
The inter-relationships of various phases of research are
many and complex. (see Cormack 1991 p58 for flow diagram).
Note that different authors identify different stages in
the research process for example Parahoo and Reid (1988) refer to the following phases.
|
Selection and formulation of a
research problem |
|
Stating aims and objectives |
|
Design of the study and choice
of methods |
|
Funding |
|
Ethical considerations |
|
Communications |
|
Construction of instruments |
|
Pilot study |
|
Data collection |
|
Analysis |
|
Presentation of findings |
Whilst there are clear similarities between the lists,
e.g., they start at the same point and refer to the same things in terms of data
collection and reporting/disseminating or presenting findings, there are also differences.
From the two lists we can compose an even longer, composite list of stages in research;
The composite but not exhaustive research process:
|
Selection and formulation of a
research problem |
|
Stating aims and objectives |
|
Searching the literature |
|
Reviewing the literature |
|
Preparing a research proposal |
|
Gaining access to the research
site/communications |
|
Design of the study and choice
of methods |
|
Funding |
|
Moral and Ethical
considerations |
|
Construction of instruments |
|
Pilot study |
|
Data collection |
|
Data handling / Analysis |
|
Presentation of findings |
The chances are, the more we search the literature, the
more variations on a theme we will find and it is possible that we could extend the list
even further. However, even with the shortest of the three lists presented here (that by
Cormack 1991), it is true to say that not every stage will be necessary or appropriate in
every project.
The value of a listing of the research process is that it
might act as a checklist and help us structure our research. If we use it for this
purpose, it becomes clear that one of the first things we need to address is the
"research problem".
Research
Questions:
In qualitative research, the research problem is phrased
in a research question.
Research questions may be a) interrogative or b) declarative.
a) Interrogative questions identify a gap in nursing
knowledge, e.g.,
"What is the relationship between health promotion
and change in health behaviour?"
b) Declarative questions define the purpose of the study
by declaring the intention to investigate a particular event, phenomenon or situation
e.g.,
"The purpose of this research is to investigate the
relationship between health promotion and change in health behaviour."
Research questions are often translated into the aims of
the study but the question comes first.
"Good" research questions are short, sharp and
specific and clearly state or imply a relationship between two or more variables. The
variables must be empirical i.e., capable of observation and measurement.
"Good" research questions are free from value
judgements and bias in order to achieve "scientific objectivity".
Research questions enable the progression of the study to
be planned and efficient, focusing thoughts and efforts.
Note what makes a research question "good":
Short
Sharp
Specific
Clear statement or implication that a relationship exists between variables
Variables capable of observation and / or measurement
What is a variable?
Variable: a
characteristic that is being measured.
Any factor, characteristic or attribute under study
which may distinguish the units within a population from each other, such as
qualifications of nurses or diagnoses of patients.
(Macleod Clark J and Hockey L 1981)
Independent Variable:
The characteristic that is considered capable of
standing alone. E.g, we might conclude that the height of a child depends upon the age of
the child thus the age of the child is the independent variable and the height is
dependent upon the age of the child. The independent variable is usually drawn on the
horizontal axis of a graph, which aims to show the relationship between the two variables.
Dependent Variable:
The characteristic that is considered to be
determined by the independent variable. E.g. we might conclude that the height of a child
depends upon the age of a child as above. If we were constructing a graph to show the
relationship between the two variables, the dependent variable would usually be plotted
against the vertical axis.
N.B. It is sometimes
difficult to discern which should be the independent variable. Logic must be applied.
Hypothesis:
Where the research problem is to be addressed in a
quantitative (as opposed to qualitative) manner, it is usual to present the research
"problem" as an hypothesis rather than a question.
An hypothesis is a statement or explanation that is
suggested by knowledge or observation but has not, yet, been proved or disproved.
(Macleod Clark J and Hockey L 1981)
A type of prediction which is usually derived from a
survey and analysis of previously published research. E.g., "If ‘x’ is done
to these patients then ‘y’ will follow" OR, more correctly, "If
‘x’ is not done, ‘y’ will not follow.
Note the last line of the description of the hypothesis
refers to the fact that it is more correct to state that if something is not done, a
particular consequence will not follow. This is in line with the view that research can
prove nothing; research sets out to disprove theories or notions. Consequently, we find
that much research of a quantitative nature is preceded by a null hypothesis rather
than an hypothesis.
Null hypothesis:
Statement / explanation which predicts that there
will be no significant differences between observations. E.g., Health promotion activity
has no significant effect on health behaviour.
Thus the research problem can be stated in the form of an
hypothesis (quantitative research) or a research question (qualitative research).
Literature Search:
Having worked our way through phrasing the research
problem in the forms of research questions or hypotheses and returning to the research
process as offered by Cormack (1991) we find that the next thing we would need to do is to
search the literature.
It follows that any one piece of research
may require more than one literature search and review...
Research literature comes in many forms e.g.
Journals
Books
Reports
Theses
Conference proceedings
Government circulars
Computer databases.
Literature searches may be done manually or with the aid
of computer technology.
Subject indices, author and classification catalogues,
abstracts and bibliographies list material published.
To conduct a good literature search time is needed.
Consider all keywords and their synonyms or associated terms in respect of the topic.
Brainstorming may be useful. A thesaurus may add to the list of words.
The search is then conducted using appropriate keyword
and narrowing the field as dictated by the number of articles and references found.
More information on literature searching is available in
your course handbook and from the University librarians
Literature Review
Definition: "... the process of systematically
identifying published materials which meet predetermined criteria" (Cormack D.F.S.
1991). It requires that a critical evaluation of literature uncovered in the literature
search that has been undertaken.
Only when the article is read can its value and
significance to the study be known.
If you refer back to the research process offered by
Cormack (1991) we are now at point 4 "Preparing a research proposal" having
looked at asking the research question, searching the literature and reviewing the
literature.
Research Design:
An essential element of the research proposal, (i.e., the
paper that states what it is you intend to do in respect of the piece of research) is the research
design
Incidentally resraerch design is point 6 in
Cormack’s list. The relationship to the proposal is clearly demonstrated in the flow
chart showing interrelationships of phases of the research process in Cormack's book.
Research design: refers to the distinctive and
specific approach best suited to answering the research question. The major research
designs are not always mutually exclusive, e.g., both qualitative and quantitative data
can be found in one study. Designs include:
Action research
Descriptive research
Ethnography
Evaluation research
Experimental research
Grounded theory
Historical research
Phenomenology
Quasi experimental research
Randomised control trials
The above list is in alphabetical order only. The major
distinction is between qualitative and quantitative designs and we will explore these
distinctions more deeply in the next two sessions rather than do it here.
Methodology within research
refers to the process followed in planning and conducting a study.
Without knowing the methodology followed a reader cannot
judge the validity of the findings and conclusions presented by the researcher. If we do
not know the methodology followed by a researcher, we can not replicate the study.
A report of the methodology should include:
A re-cap of the research problem /question(s)
The study setting
The sample (size, mode of selection, assignment to groups
procedure, consent procedure)
Any interventions
Data collection methods and instruments
Clearly the methodology should be stated in the research
proposal.
The methodology picks up on points
1. The research question / problem
5. The research site / study setting
7. The data collection
10. Moral issues
of Cormack's model of the research process as well as
demanding that information is made available about the sample and any intervention.
Ethics:
In each step of the research process, the ethical
dimension needs to be addressed. Although you are studying ethics as a discrete theme
within the CFP nursing research requires the application of ethics in a specific way.
Research should cause no harm or distress and it is
important that any proposal should be reviewed by an unbiased individual or group.
Research that does not have the potential to advance our knowledge should not take place.
Ethical considerations include confidentiality and anonymity. (For Moral Codes and
Guidelines, see Cormack D.F.S. 1991 p34)
What we have done so far in the first session is to offer
an overview of research as a process. We will be addressing the issues raised in more
detail throughout the CFP.
As an exercise you may wish to identify an area that is,
in some way related to health or to nursing, (may be something encountered in practice?)
and
Devise a research question, hypothesis or null hypothesis that you think would be
appropriate for a study of this area
Suggest key words that might be used in a literature search for the study.
These pages are authored by John Ross and Sandra Chadwick Senior Lecturers at the
University of Luton, Faculty of Healthcare and Social Studies based at Stoke Mandeville
Hospital, Aylesbury, Bucks. UK HP21 8AL
email comments to johnross@cwcom.net
