In 1839 the Opium Wars between Britain and the Chinese Empire broke out over China's attempts to prohibit the import of opium into its territory. Britain and France defeated China , and British troops occupied Hong Kong and Shanghai , whilst both Western powers forced the opening up to foreign trade of a number of Chinese ports.
This beginning of the 'Treaty System' which opened China increasingly to foreign interests was perceived in Saint Petersburg as a threat to Russia's interests as enshrined within theTreaty of Nerchinsk (1689) and the later Kiakhta agreement (1727) . In 1843 Tsar Nikolai I decided to send Admiral Efimii Vasil'evich Putiatin (1803-1884) on a mission to Japan and to China . However the Russian Finance Minister and Chancellor opposed this , thus delaying events for a decade.
In 1850 the Taipeng (Great Peace) Rebellion broke out in central China , gathering pace to become a serious threat to the ruling Manchu dynasty in a way that alarmed the Western powers who saw their growing influence potentially undermined by events. British armies , including aong their leaders Gordon (later of Khartoum) were 'invited' by the Chinese to help in the suppression of the rebellion. At the same time the Russian court learnt of American intentions to force the opening of Japanese ports to their trade . Muraviev warned the tsar that Britain and America threatened Russia's position in the Far East , and at lastin 1852 Putiatin was despatched with instructions to establish greater ties with Japan as well as with China
Peking in 1865
In 1853 Putiatin entered Nagasaki with his flagship Pallada , the Diana , and 3 other vessels. At the same time Commodore Matthew Perry was forcing open Tokyo's harbour by threatening bombardment if the Japanese did not comply. Putiatin was not party to these moves but his presence helped to convince the Shogunate that the policy of 'national seclusion' had to come to an end.
Putiatin's series of diplomatic negotiations was interupted by the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1854. At the outbreak he was at Petropavlosk with the majority of the force available in the Far East. The Pallada had been wrecked in the Amur River estuary and it was with a depleted force that he faced off against the Anglo-French force who attempted and failed to seize Petropavlosk. After this success Putiatin oversaw the evacuation of the garrison and naval squadron from the city.
However , his flagship , Diana , was caught up in a great earthquake and tidal wave off the Japanese port of Shimoda , which was flattened by the event , and Putiatin and his crew was marooned on Honshu. Here it seems (?) that Putiatin was able to resume negotiations , and also arrange for 40 of his men to construct locally a vessel to take them to Russia (it would also seem that others of his men broke out of jail and escaped in a schooner that was later captured by the British but this may be a conflation of two or more events).
Putiatin agreed with the Japanese in 1855 the Treaty of Amity (Nichiro Washin Joyaku) which was modelled on the Kanagawa Treaty recently agreed between the Japanese and the American Commodore Perry. It opened the ports of Shimoda , Hakodate and Nagasaki to Russia , but only for ship repairs and provisioning , and established a division of the Kuril Islands so that those South from Iturup (Etorofu) were Japanese and those North from Urup (Uruppu) were Russian. Sakhalin became a 'common possession' and Russia also established a consulate at Hakodate.
The Crimean War ended in 1856 and Putiatin resumed his mission to China , returning to Japan in 1857 where it seems (?) that revisions were made to the Treaty of Amity before the Shogunate would agree it. This seems to have been a period of busy diplomacy. China and Russia signed the Treaty of Aigun in 1858 and shortly afterwards it appears that Putiatin at last got official ratification of the 1855 agreement from the Japanese . It seems that in 1860 Putiatin also signed the Treaty of Peking with the Chinese , thus bringing his mammoth round of diplomacy to a successful conclusion .
Unfortunately my sources lack clarity on some of the main events , and especially Putiatin's whereabouts and actions during the Crimean War . If anyone could help clarify these matters please email me at Selornia@888.nu
