Basic Flight

<body topmargin=0 leftmargin=0 marginheight=0 marginwidth=0> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0><tr> <td valign="top" height=94 BGCOLOR="#000000" TEXT="#F7F7FF"> <div> <TABLE BORDER="5" CELLPADDING="2" CELLSPACING="6" WIDTH="361" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#A6CAF0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#C0C0C0" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 16 ><NOBR><div> <A HREF="id29_rrfws.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Training"><U>Hornet Training</U></A></div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="70"><div> <A HREF="id131_a.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Glossary"><U>Glossary</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <A HREF="id132_a_.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="RadioCalls"><U>Radio Calls</U></A></div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <A HREF="id170_onlinedictionary.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Online Dictionary"><U>Dictionary</U></A></div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <bR> <div> <B>This page has links to other data click on section title or picture.</B></div> </td> </tr><tr> <td valign="top" height=386 BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#080000" bgproperties="fixed" background="60f00c00egerdp.jpg"> <bR> <div> Basic Flight</div> <div>  <A NAME="bf"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A>                                                                                              <FONT SIZE="5" COLOR="#000000" FACE="Arial" ><B>BASIC FLIGHT</B></FONT></div> <div>               Figure 1-1      <A HREF="id179_ldtw.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="ldtw"><U><IMG SRC="78f62f60.gif" border=0 width="610" height="246" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></U></A>                   </div> <div>                                              <B>                                                          Click for animation </B></div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> <A HREF="id174_fd.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="filght dynamics"><U>Basics of Flight Dynamics</U></A></div> <div> Before we can begin to understand Basic Fighter Maneuvers, we need to understand a few basics of flight.</div> <bR> <div> Flight is a result of several forces acting upon the aircraft. The first is the aircraft's weight, or gravitational force pilling toward ground. The second is thrust, the force produced by engines that propels the plane through the air. this forward movement causes air to move over the wings, which in turn creates a lift force that counteract the gravitational force. The final force acting on an aircraft is drag. Drag is a force that is generated in a direction opposite to flight.</div> <bR> <div> Multiple forces can act on an object simultaneously, and several directions. The individual forces are called component forces, while the overall effect of these forces is called the resultant force.</div> <div>                                             </div> <div>           </div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> <A HREF="id177_thrust.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Thrust"><U>Thrust</U></A></div> <div> <IMG SRC="67f3d850.gif" border=0 width="573" height="133" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Thrust is the force that causes an aircraft to move through the air. This can be produced by anything from a jet engine to a rocket motor to a propeller pulling your aircraft through the air. The measurement of thrust is usually in pounds or Newtons. It would seem pretty obvious that the more thrust an aircraft engine produces, the faster an aircraft can travel. The faster an aircraft can travel, the faster the air can be moved across the wings, and thus the more lift that can be generated.</div> <div> The power of fighter aircraft engines are expressed in a thrust to weight ratio. The ratio compares the thrust of the engine to the weight of the aircraft. The higher the ratio, the more powerful the aircraft. Most combat aircraft have had between 0.7 to 0.9 thrust to weight ratio. The F-15 and F-16 fighter models actually have a thrust to weight ratio of greater than 1.0 which allows them to climb vertically. The Soviet built twin engine MIG-29, with no weapons has a greater than 1.0 thrust to weight ratio & with one engine turned off.</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="id178_lift.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Lift"><U>Lift</U></A></div> <div> We briefly touched on lift. Lift is the force generated by air moving across the surface of the wing. To be more precise, it is the force generated by the unbalanced movement of air across the top as opposed to across the bottom of the wing. Due to the curvature of the top of the wing being greater than the curvature of the bottom of the wing, air flowing across the top of the wing must move faster, to cover the greater distance, if it is to meet the air moving across the bottom of the wing at the trailing edge of the wing at the same time.</div> <div> <A HREF="id181_lift3.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Lift l3"><U><IMG SRC="4f8fa800.gif" border=0 width="250" height="128" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></U></A></div> <bR> <div> The principal at work is known as Bernoulli's Law. Bernoulli, an 18th century Italian scientist, discovered that the faster a gas travels, the lower it's pressure. So if the air moving over the wing is moving faster than the air moving under the wing, there is more pressure below than above. This allows the higher pressure below the wing to "push" up and "lift" the wing.</div> <div> The faster the aircraft travels, the faster the airflow across the wing. The faster the airflow over the wing, the more pressure differential there is between the top and bottom of the wing. A simplified example: if the pressure at 100 knots is 95 PSI on the top of the wing and 100 PSI on the bottom, there is a 5 PSI pressure differential. </div> <bR> <div>  <A HREF="id186_lift_level.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="level lift"><U><IMG SRC="4f9fa800.gif" border=0 width="250" height="128" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></U></A></div> <div> Figure 1-2</div> <bR> <div> At 200 knots, the pressure would be 200 over 190, for 10 PSI differential, or twice the lifting force. It should be noted that there are those that claim the Bernoulli theory is incorrect and that Newtonian theorems should be used. I have used the current most accepted explanation of Lift.</div> <bR> <div>  </div> <div> <A HREF="id173_aoa.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="AOA"><U>Angle of Attack </U></A></div> <bR> <div> We also must take into account the AOA, or Angle of Attack, of the wing. Initially the amount of lift increases with the AOA. But there comes a point when the AOA is too high for the air to flow over the wing. Without airflow, there is no pressure differential. With no pressure differential, there is no lift. When this happens, the aircraft stalls. While AOA can cause a stall, flying too slow can cause a stall as well. When you fly slowly, you decrease the amount of airflow over the wings, which in turn decreases lift. When your lift drops too low to keep the aircraft aloft, you stall.</div> <bR> <div>   <A HREF="id185_aoa.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="AOA2"><U><IMG SRC="4fafa810.gif" border=0 width="250" height="129" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></U></A></div> <div> Figure 1-3</div> <div>  </div> <bR> <bR> <div> Drag</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="id180_drag.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Drag"><U><IMG SRC="67d2c6c0.gif" border=0 width="300" height="108" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></U></A></div> <bR> <div> Drag is the opposite of thrust. Drag is the force that slows the aircraft down. Drag is basically friction, the resistance of the air against the structure of the aircraft. This may be a bit difficult to understand. If you put your hand out the window of a moving car, the wind pushes against it and tries to push it back. This is drag.</div> <div> Aircraft designers try to eliminate as many drag inducing features as possible. Bumps, rivet heads, paint, antennae, bombs, missiles, drop tanks, even control surfaces (rudders, canards, etc.)all cause drag. The smoother an aircraft's surface is, the less drag will be induced. But you can never completely eliminate drag.</div> <bR> <div> It is very interesting to note the Soviet design concept. The Soviets make the front of the aircraft as aerodynamic, thus less drag inducing, as possible. Nose, wing leading edges, anything that comes into contact with the air first is made as smooth and flawless as possible. The areas behind these parts of the aircraft are not considered as critical. By this time the air is "dirty", or is in a somewhat turbulent state, since the front of the aircraft has already pushed through and disturbed the airflow. Because of this, they feel there is not much purpose to spending the time or money to make these surfaces smooth. The Western countries do not follow this same train of thought and make the entire aircraft as smooth as possible.</div> <div> <IMG SRC="67e58310.gif" border=0 width="344" height="305" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>Wave drag</B></div> <bR> <div> Wave drag is only found in jet fighters or supersonic aircraft. When plane moves at supersonic speeds, it builds up a tremendous shock wave in front of it. It takes enormous energy to move through these waves, and this resistance is called wave drag. When the shock wave reaches the ground, it is experienced in the rattling form of a "sonic boom." Becouse tha wave is always maving away from the aircraft, the pilot never hears the sound of sonic boom, even when crossing the sound barrier</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> <A HREF="id182_weight.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="weight"><U>Weight</U></A></div> <bR> <div> <IMG SRC="68aa39d0.gif" border=0 width="163" height="157" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Weight is the opposite of lift. Weight is the effect of the gravitational pull of the earth on the aircraft. We can always add more thrust, or create a more efficient wing, or even reduce drag as far as possible, but we can do nothing to counteract gravity. Gravity will always win in the end (unless you hop on the Space Shuttle and blast yourself out of the reach of the gravitational pull of the earth & but then, that would not be flying anymore). If thrust or lift become too low, or drag becomes too high, weight and gravity will persevere.</div> <bR> <div> Now that you have a basic understanding of what actually holds your aircraft in the air, we can start learning Basic Fighter Maneuvers. I am sure you have figured out by now that holes in your wing reduce lift and increase drag. So lets learn how to avoid getting hit while making sure you cause some flight dynamics problems for your opponent.</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> <B><U>G forces</U></B></div> <bR> <div> You can't fly combat aircraft without considering G forces. G forces are the forces of acceleration that pull on you when you change your plane of motion. They are the forces that pilots encouter when engaged in high-speed dogfighting and BFM. There are both ppositive and negative G forces; both can be dangerous to a fighter ppilot. The force of gravity on Earth is used as a baseline for measuring these forces of acceleration.</div> <bR> <div> The force of gravity when you sit, stand or lie down is considered 1 G. In normal activity, we rarely experience anything other than 1 G. But flying a combat aircraft such as the F-18 is not exactly normal. The F-18 is capable of pulling 9 Gs without even trying. But the effect of 9 Gs on your body will be significant. As you pull more Gs, your weight increases correspondingly. Your 10-pound head will weigh 90 pounds when you pull 9 Gs!</div> <bR> <div> If you continue to pull high Gs, the G force will push the blood in your body towards your feet and resist your heart's attempts to pump it back up to your brain. You will begin to get tunnel vision, then things will lose color and turn white, and finnaly everything will go black. You've just experienced the onset of Gravity Induced Loss of Consciousness /GLOC/.</div> <bR> <div> The modern fighter pilot has some aids in helping him overcome the forces of gravity he experiences from combat. The most obvious is the G suit. The G suit uses the principle of pushing the blood back up toward the head during high G maneuvers. The British first used water bladders placed around the legs to help fight against Gs. As the pilot was pressed into his seat from high G forces, the incompressible water would push against his legs and keep the blood from pooling there. Modern G suits use compressed air to force the blood back up towards the pilot's head.</div> <bR> <div> The G force from such maneuvers as pulling out of a dive or banking sharply are called positive Gs because they increase our ordinaly sense of gravity. It is also possible to maneuver in a way that produces negative forces of gravity. These are called negative Gs, and they have a very different effect on you.</div> <bR> <div> If you are flying straight and level and push the nose of the plane down, you will experience your weight lessning. The harder you push the nose down, the more "weightless" you will feel. You are experiencing negative Gs. The effect of negative Gs is to push the blood up into the head, just the opposite of positive Gs. However, while the body can stand up to 9 positive Gs without severe consequences, blood vessels in your eyes will start to rupture when you apply as little as 2 to 3 negative Gs. This is known as redout.. A pilot who pushes too many negative Gs will be seeing the world through bloodshot eyes.</div> <bR> <div> There is a simple way to avoid negative Gs that also gives you much better maneuverability. Instead of pushing forward on the stick to dive (which creates negative Gs) , roll your aircraft 180 deg. And pull back on the stick. If you roll so that your cockpit is facing toward the ground and then pull back on the stick, you will still be diving toward the ground but will be experiencing positive Gs instead. Your tolerance is much greater to positive Gs.</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> <A HREF="id175_as.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Air speed"><U>AIRSPEED</U></A></div> <div> As an aircraft travels through the atmosphere, air flows over the surfaces of the aircraft. This flow creates pressure. At higher altitudes, air is less dense, and less air flows over the aircraft's surfaces. By measuring the pressure of the airflow, the F/A-18's pitot tube allows the flight computer to compute airspeed.</div> <bR> <div> Because of atmospheric density, a difference can exist in the computed airspeed of an aircraft flying at one altitude with a constant thrust and AoA, and the same aircraft traveling at a different altitude under the same thrust and AoA conditions. For this reason, an aircraft has both an indicated airspeed (apparent velocity, based on current air density and altitude) and a true airspeed (airspeed corrected for variations due to air density and altitude).</div> <bR> <div> As an example, imagine you're in an aircraft flying at an altitude of 5000 feet at 350 knots(true airspeed), and a second aircraft is flying at 30,000 feet at the same true airspeed. Because the second plane is flying at a higher altitude and through less-dense air), the pitot tubes on the two aircraft measure different indicated airspeed's. The upper aircraft registers a slower indicated airspeed than your aircraft at the lower altitude. If you and the other pilot are trying to arrive somewhere at the same time, you both need a reading that you can compare regardless of altitude This adjusted reading is the true airspeed.</div> <div> By comparing true airspeeds, you and the other pilot can figure out if one aircraft is actually traveling faster than the other. Even though the indicated airspeeds might differ, if the true airspeeds are the same, you'll arrive at your destination at the same time.</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> AoA AND AIRSPEED</div> <div> Although thrust is the force behind airspeed, the angle of attack (AoA) greatly affects airspeed. if you're trying to fly a level path, it's important to remember that you must accompany any change in AoA with a change in throttle to keep altitude constant. At very low speeds (i.e., during takeoffs and landings), the effect of AoA on speed is most pronounced.</div> <bR> <div> As a guideline, first select your AoA using the flight stick, then adjust the throttle until you are flying. In the game, your current indicated airspeed in KIAS, or knots indicated air speed appears in the rectangle on the left side of the HUD, as well as in the ADI MPD.</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> G-FORCES</div> <div> The relationship between the forces of lift and weight can be described in terms of "G". 1G is equivalent to the gravitational force on an object at sea level. An airplane in level flight experience 1G of force, as the earth pulls on It. G-forces are most commonly felt during sharp turns or heavy accelerations, and can be positive or negative. Positive Gs during a turn Pull you back into the seat, while negative Gs exert a pulling effect. In high-G maneuvers, your heart must work harder to pump blood away from the direction of the pull.</div> <bR> <div> A well-trained pilot can endure about 9-10 positive G's for a limited time. Anything beyond that can cause tunnel vision or blackout. Blood collects in the lower torso and the legs, denying blood to the brain. Eyesight starts to "gray-out," and eventually you will black out. A similar condition called "red-out" occurs when the aircraft pulls too many negative G's. Blood collects in the upper regions of the body, and the blood vessels in the eyes swell. This causes your vision to go red. Usually, this starts occurring after several seconds of flying at -3Gs or greater.</div> <bR> <div> The F/A-18E Super Hornet has a superior airframe that can withstand more Gs than its pilot can. Both red-out and black-out effects are accurately simulated in the game. For this reason, you must pay attention to your current G-force level by checking your HUD.</div> <div> The aircraft is designed to sustain a g-limit o f+7.5G or -3.0G at or below a designed weight of 42,097 lbs. At higher gross weights, the g-limit is reduced to keep from overstressing the airframe, such that at the aircraft's maximum gross weight (66,000 Ibs.) the g-limit is only +4. 50 to 1.9G.</div> <bR> <div> The F/A-18E's g-limiter essentially "limits" the amount of positive and negative G that you can command based on the aircraft's gross weight. Once you push the stick to the g-limit, further imputes are ignored. This is commonly called "being on the limiter." Due the the aerodynamic phenomenon know as transonic pitchup, the g-limiter incorporates a "g-bucket" designed to prevent over-G during deceleration. The g-limiler only allows +5.8G to be commanded while in "the G-bucket."</div> <bR> <div> You can enable the g-limiter override feature to allow a 33% increase in the g-limit for emergency situations - allowing 10 G at the 7.5G limit</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> ALTITUDE</div> <div> An aircraft gains altitude as a result of lift. As with airspeed, altitude can be expressed in several ways. The two most important altitude measurements in the game are the indicated barometric) and radar altitudes. In the HUD you can choose whether or not to display radar altitude. Barometric altitude gives your altitude above sea level (ASL). Radar altitude indicates your altitude above the ground over which, you are flying (AGL).</div> <bR> <div> Altitude reduces engine performance as a result of lower atmospheric air pressure. As altitude increases, air becomes less dense. An aircraft's critical attitude is how high it can fly while maintaining normal engine power. There is a certain limit to how high an aircraft can fly with any efficiency. At 25.000 feet, an aircraft's jet engines are only producing about half the power they can at sea level.</div> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <bR> <div> THE FLIGHT ENVELOPE</div> <div> Lift is a function of an aircraft's speed, altitude and angle-of-attack. All of these factor, work together to produce flight, and all three must be considered together when talking about how airplanes maneuver. Their limits are graphically described by an aircraft's flight envelope.Here is the F/A-18E Super Hornet's flight envelope diagram. The vertical scale represents altitude, in thousands of feet, while the horizontal scale represents speed, in Mach number. The solid line curves represent maximum power thrust, while the dotted line curves represent Military power thrust</div> <div> .<IMG SRC="4fbfabf0.jpg" border=0 width="250" height="191" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Curve 1 describes an aircraft fitted with 2-AIM-9 Sidewinders, 2-AIM-120 AMRAAMs and 60% fuel for a total weight of 42.200 pounds.</div> <div> Curve 2 describes an aircraft fitted with 4-AIM-9 Sidewinders, 2-AIM-120 AMRAAMs, a centerline fuel tank, an ATFLIR pod and 75% internal fuel for a total weight of 46,500 pounds.</div> <bR> <div>   </div> <div> As the Mach Number changes whit altitude , the position of the curve adjusts accordingly. Notice the huge amount of difference between these two curves. Also note that the aircraft is only supersonic above 15,000 feet. even with a relatively light loadout, and only reaches maximum airspeed at around 35,000 feet.</div> <bR> <div> This is a simple depiction of the F/A-18E's performance limitations; different weapon configurations require adjusted envelopes since they modify weight and drag.</div> <div> <TABLE BORDER="10" CELLPADDING="5" CELLSPACING="3" WIDTH="656" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#FFFFFF" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 16 WIDTH="75"><div> <A HREF="id73_cpt.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="cockpit"><U>Cockpit</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="82"><div> <A HREF="#bf" TITLE="Basic Flight"><U>Basic Flight</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="80"><div> <A HREF="id88_bfm.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="BMF"><U>BFM</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="78"><div> <A HREF="id94_form.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Formation"><U>Formation</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="75"><div> <A HREF="id105_mt.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Mission Tactics"><U>M-Tactics</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <A HREF="id171_campaigns.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Campaigns"><U>Building Campaings</U></A></div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 16 WIDTH="75"><div> <A HREF="id74_hud.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="HUD"><U>HUD</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="82"><div> <A HREF="id81_fc.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Flight Characteristics"><U>Character</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="80"><div> <A HREF="id89_bacm.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Basic ACM"><U>Basic ACM</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="78"><div> <A HREF="id95_ata.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Air Combat"><U>Combat</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="75"><div> <A HREF="id101_wing.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Wingmen Tactics"><U>W-Tactics</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="153"><div> <A HREF="id172_tacops.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Tacops"><U>Building Missions</U></A></div> </tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 16 WIDTH="75"><div> <A HREF="id75_mdi.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="MDI/UFC"><U>MDI/UFC</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="82"><div> <A HREF="id82_fd.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Flight Disruption"><U>Disruption</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="80"><div> <A HREF="id87_obfm.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Offensive BFM"><U>Off-BFM</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="78"><div> <A HREF="id96_dobfm.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Detailed OBFM"><U>DO-BFM</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="75"><div> <A HREF="id102_sam.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="SAMS"><U>SAMS</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="153"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="16" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="153" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 16 WIDTH="75"><div> <A HREF="id76_radar.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="AA Radar"><U>AA-Radar</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <A HREF="id85_tol.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Takeoff and Landing"><U>Takeoff/Land</U></A></div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="80"><div> <A HREF="id130_obfm.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Defensive BFM"><U>Def-BFM</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="78"><div> <A HREF="id97_ddbfm.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Detailed DBFM"><U>DD-BFM</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="75"><div> <A HREF="id103_mb.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Mission Builder"><U>M-Builder</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="153"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="16" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="153" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></tD> </tR> <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 16 ><NOBR><div> <A HREF="id77_aa.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="AA Engagement"><U>AA-Combat</U></A></div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="82"><div> <A HREF="id86_fuel.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Refueling"><U>Refueling</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="80"><div> <A HREF="id91_hbfm.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Head On BFM"><U>HO-BFM</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <A HREF="id98_habfm.htm" 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