Formation

<body topmargin=0 leftmargin=0 marginheight=0 marginwidth=0> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0><tr> <td valign="top" height=94 BGCOLOR="#000000" TEXT="#F7F7FF"> <div> <TABLE BORDER="5" CELLPADDING="2" CELLSPACING="6" WIDTH="361" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#A6CAF0" BORDERCOLORDARK="#C0C0C0" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 16 ><NOBR><div> <A HREF="id29_rrfws.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Training"><U>Hornet Training</U></A></div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="70"><div> <A HREF="id131_a.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Glossary"><U>Glossary</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <A HREF="id132_a_.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="RadioCalls"><U>Radio Calls</U></A></div> </NOBR></tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <A HREF="id170_onlinedictionary.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Online Dictionary"><U>Dictionary</U></A></div> </NOBR></tD> </tR> </TABLE></div> <div> </div> </td> </tr><tr> <td valign="top" height=386 BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#080000" bgproperties="fixed" background="62f00c00egerdp.jpg"> <bR> <div> Formation</div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B> <A NAME="form"><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="1x1.gif" HEIGHT="1" ALIGN="bottom" WIDTH="1" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" ></A></B><B>FORMATION SELECTION</B></div> <div> <IMG SRC="7816d3b0.jpg" border=0 width="621" height="315" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <bR> <div> Basic Formation</div> <div> Formation discipline is essential for the safety and control of all formation flights. The integrity of a formation can only be maintained when the leader has complete knowledge and control of the actions of each flight member. The flight leader will brief the formations to be flown and formation responsibilities. Wingmen will maintain assigned formation position until change is ordered or approved by the flight lead.</div> <div> Radio Discipline And Visual Signals</div> <div> Discipline within a formation starts with communications, whether by radio or visual signals. All communications must be clearly understood by every flight member. Radio discipline requires not only clarity and brevity in the message itself, but limiting unnecessary transmissions as well. The first part of any radio call should always be "call sign." This alerts the listener that a message is coming (attention step) and to specify to whom it is directed. The use of tactical or personal call signs or reliance on voice recognition or tone/inflection to identify another aircraft are poor practices, intolerable in combat. For an acknowledgment immediately following a radio call from lead, flight number (i.e., 2, 3, 4) with the appropriate response will be used. For all initiated calls or a response that is delayed, full call sign must be used. In exercise or actual combat with many aircraft and many people on the radio, proper use of assigned call signs and brevity words enhance situational awareness between and within flights; poor radio discipline will quickly degrade situational awareness with invariably disastrous results. In the event that a tasking agency gives you a cumbersome mission number to use as your callsign, resolve the problem during preflight planning.</div> <bR> <div> EXAMPLE:</div> <div> "Viper 21, group, 210º, 25 miles, 30,000', head."</div> <div> Acknowledgment—"Two same."</div> <div> Delayed acknowledgment—"Viper 22 same."</div> <bR> <div> Limit radio use to essential calls only. Only standard signals/calls should be used unless the flight leader specifically briefs non-standard signals. Ops checks will be initiated by the flight leader. This is the time to confirm proper fuel state, fuel transfer, engine operation, and operation of life support equipment. It is each pilot's responsibility to continually check these items without prompting by the flight leader.</div> <bR> <div> Ground Operations</div> <div> Prior to stepping, the flight lead should confirm configuration to ensure the aircraft/pilot combination are optimized. Fuel tank and weapons configurations are two of the most obvious factors to be considered. Before takeoff, a thorough check of all aircraft systems should be completed. Also, ensure that your rudder trim is centered.</div> <div> Minimum systems checked should include:</div> <div> · SMS weapon load/operation.</div> <div> · EW.</div> <div> · Chaff/Flares. Programmer set.</div> <div> · Radar.</div> <div> · BIT check.</div> <div> · MFD setup.</div> <div> · HUD.</div> <div> · Master arm switch.</div> <bR> <div> Formation Takeoff</div> <div> The leader will direct the appropriate runway line-up. Wingmen should line up ensuring wingtip clearance (runway width permitting) and just slightly forward of the normal in-flight reference (line up the main landing gear wheels).</div> <div> On the leader's signal, the throttle is advanced. The signal for brake release is a radio call. The leader will make a normal takeoff except that after he advances the power to MIL or MAX, he will retard it slightly to allow the wingman a power advantage. At the leader's signal, the wingman will go to full MIL or MAX and stabilize with wingtip clearance. If you initially get the jump on lead, reduce power slightly to maintain position. The best technique is to concentrate on flying formation from brake release, then match lead's rotation rate. When safely airborne, the leader will pass a gear up and AB out signal, if appropriate. If the gear signal is missed, raise your gear when the leader's gear starts to move. Glance in quickly to ascertain your gear is up and locked. The wingman will maintain wingtip clearance throughout the takeoff roll. If overrunning the leader, you will be directed to assume the lead while continuing the takeoff. If either member of the element must abort, the other member should continue the takeoff. In either case, directional control (staying on your side of the runway) is essential to prevent collision.</div> <bR> <div> Trail Departure</div> <div> A trail departure is normally used to get a flight of two or more airborne when conditions won't permit a formation takeoff or rejoin out of traffic. Weapons loads, configuration differences, and low ceilings or poor visibility are normally deciding factors. Prior to takeoff, the departure plate should be reviewed and all navigation equipment set up properly. Listen carefully to the clearance and controlling agencies for nonstandard or unpublished restrictions. Set up the radar for easy acquisition.</div> <bR> <div> As a technique, select:</div> <div> · Range-while-search (RWS). This allows you to observe all returns and verify which are flight members.</div> <div> · Track-while-scan (TWS) in the F/A-18 also has limitations. The search pattern is smaller, and if the cursors aren't in the proper position, the azimuth scan pattern may be incorrect.</div> <bR> <div> As a radar setting, select:</div> <div> · 10 NM range (20 NM required for multi-ship or element departure spacing).</div> <div> · + 60º azimuth sweep (consider + 30º for a faster sweep pattern if the departure is straight ahead).</div> <div> · Four bar scan and rotate the ANT ELEV slightly above the detent.</div> <div> · Target history 2 or 3.</div> <bR> <div> During takeoff, maintain aircraft control by making a timely transition to instruments as outside visual cues deteriorate. Your overriding priority must be flying the aircraft, not operating the radar. Get the aircraft safely airborne, gear retracted, and establish a safe climb at departure airspeed. If there is a turn or intermediate level-off shortly after takeoff, ignore the radar until you have completed these tasks. You are authorized to use the HUD as a Primary Flight Reference (PFR) in accordance. However, use caution during all phases of flight in order to avoid the tendency to channelize your attention in the HUD. Do not maintain radar trail through sole use of the HUD and be particularly cautious during the subsequent rejoin. Always backup your crosscheck through the use of your heads down displays (HDD).</div> <div> During climbout, establish and maintain briefed power setting and airspeed. Fly the instrument departure using control and performance instruments in a composite cross-check. Listen to the radio for instructions and information. Begin all climbs at the same time as the leader (usually when lead acknowledges the altitude change). Lead should call passing every 5000’ increment until all flight members are tied/visual. If you fly the departure using briefed headings, altitudes, bank angles, airspeeds, power settings, and radio calls, you will not run into your leader or preceding aircraft.</div> <div> As a rule of thumb for turns using 30º of bank, allow the preceding aircraft to drift 5º laterally for each mile of separation between aircraft. For example, to maintain a 2 NM trail position, allow the preceding aircraft to drift 10º before initiating your turn; to maintain a 3 NM trail position, allow him to drift 15º before starting your turn. If spacing is greater than desired, initiate the turn prior to the standard lead point to establish cutoff and decrease separation. One technique is to keep the target at 0º azimuth during a turn. This "pure pursuit" technique establishes an easily controllable amount of cutoff. As the range decreases to the desired separation, roll out a little bank and let him drift to the appropriate azimuth to maintain that spacing. If spacing is less than briefed, allow the preceding aircraft to drift beyond the normal lead point before initiating the turn and separation will increase. As a technique, letting the target drift no more than 10º colder than the azimuth required to maintain spacing works well.</div> <bR> <div> Nearing the desired separation, increase your bank angle slightly to bring the target to the azimuth which will maintain that spacing. When cockpit tasking permits, use the radar to identify preceding flight members in order to fine tune your trail position. Flying instruments and maintaining aircraft control is still the overriding priority. Do not allow your attention to be channelized on the radar. This potential trap is particularly insidious when experiencing problems gaining radar contact. When you are ready to use the radar after takeoff, you should see lead or the preceding flight member approximately 2 miles in front of you. If you do not, place the cursors at the range and azimuth where you think he should be and check your elevation search pattern. More than one wingman has been lost while 2 miles behind and below lead due to incorrect antenna elevation positioning.</div> <bR> <div> Since you will be at or near the same speed of other flight members, expect their target histories to be superimposed or extremely close together. If there are numerous contacts, concentrate on those which are at a range and azimuth on the scope consistent with the departure ground track. Again, do not allow your attention to be channelized on the radar if you are having trouble gaining contact. At the first indication of task saturation or disorientation, immediately concentrate on flying instruments. Flying the aircraft is always the first priority.</div> <div> Once you have radar contact, you have to decide whether to lock on or to fly a no-lock trail departure. While a no-lock departure allows you to clear your flight path, normally it is easier to maintain precise position and radar contact with a lock. As number three or four, you probably want to keep track of all preceding flight members. In this case, you may not want to take a lock or you may prefer to use TWS.</div> <div> If you take a lock, the preferred method is by placing the cursors over the target and designating with the [target_undesegnate] key (L&S target designation). Next stage is to switch to STT mode to obtain a solid lock-on, when you done that transmit a radio call asking on whom you are locked-on.</div> <bR> <div> EXAMPLE:</div> <div> "Viper 23, You are single, 11 o'clock (bearing can be used also i.e. bearing 330º), 8 miles, 8,500', heading North (bearing can be used also bearing 360º), Please identify."</div> <div> "Viper 22, Viper 23, affirmative, you have a solid lock-on me."</div> <div> "Viper 23, Viper 22, roger."</div> <div> This is the best way to ensure that you have the desired aircraft locked. An unverified ACM lock could be hazardous. If, for example, you were number three and didn't realize that the ACM lock was on lead instead of number two, the result could be a mid-air collision since both you and number two would be trying to fly the same position behind lead. No matter the method, all locks should be verified by ensuring the target is at the correct range, azimuth and altitude, and is flying the proper ground track at the briefed airspeed. If there is a doubt, immediately return to a search mode to regain/ensure situation awareness.</div> <bR> <div> Fly radar trail by through reference of the radar display/MFD and the HUD. While all data is available on the radar display, azimuth and range information is not as precise as that shown in the HUD. Retaining a 10 mile range scale display makes it easier to estimate the distance between flight members, but limits clearing your flight path to only 10 miles. You may wish to occasionally switch to the 20 mile range scale for this reason. In order to use the HUD, you must have a radar lock. You can then reference the TD box ( for azimuth, and the target range and closure rate displays for separation. In the F/A-18, one technique is to combine use of both the HUD and radar display by selecting TWS, 20 mile range display, with the preceding flight member as the bugged target. This way you can use the radar display to clear your flight path and keep track of all preceding flight members. You can reference the HUD for more precise azimuth and range information for the aircraft you are following. Whatever method you use, primary attention should be on basic instrument flying. Use small bank changes and fly the briefed airspeed and power setting to maintain position.</div> <bR> <div> After you confirm that you have the preceding flight member on radar, call "tied." Call "visual" when you see him visually. Until all flight members are tied, the flight will continue making required radio calls. Once a tied or visual call has been made, advise the leader if either radar or visual contact is subsequently lost. The bottom line is to maintain aircraft control and fly the instrument departure. Watch out for task saturation, channelized attention, and disorientation. Radar work takes a back seat when prioritizing tasks. Successful trail departures have been flown for decades without the use of a radar.</div> <bR> <div> Fingertip (Close) Formation</div> <div> Fingertip is flown in a position that aligns the front portion of the wingtip missile launcher rail (or forward missile fins) with a point halfway between the ECS duct and the leading edge of the intake fairing. Fly laterally to align the trailing edges of the exhaust nozzle. For echelon, the relative position is the same as fingertip. Turns into the echelon will be avoided if at all possible. If a turn is made into the echelon, each aircraft will maintain the same relative position as in straight and level flight. On turns away from the echelon, all aircraft will maintain the same horizontal plane.</div> <div> Crossunders</div> <div> When the number two aircraft is required to cross under in a flight of three or more, number three (or the element) will move out to allow number two sufficient spacing to move into position. Number two will drop below and behind the leader, maintaining nose-tail and vertical clearance, then move up into the wing position on number one. Number three will then move in on number two's wing. When an element is required to cross under, the element will drop below and behind the lead (element) maintaining nose-tail and vertical clearance, cross to the opposite side, then move up into position. Number four changes positions during the crossunder.</div> <bR> <div> Route Formation</div> <div> Route formation is flown as a modified fingertip formation with up to 500' between aircraft. When turned away from, the wingman will stack level with the leader. When turned into, the wingman will only stack down enough to keep lead in sight and avoid his maneuvering plane. Crossunders may be directed using a wing dip as in close formation. For echelon, the relative position is the same as route. If a turn is made into the echelon, each aircraft will only stack down enough to keep rest of the formation in sight and avoid their maneuvering plane. Lead should avoid excessive bank angles. On turns away from the echelon, all aircraft will maintain the same horizontal plane.</div> <bR> <div> Trail Formation</div> <div> Close trail position is defined as one to two-ship lengths behind the lead aircraft and below his jet wash. Trail formation will be flown in a cone 30º - 60º aft of lead at a range briefed by the flight lead to accomplish specific requirements. Avoid flying at lead's high six o'clock and use caution not to lose sight of lead under the nose.</div> <bR> <div> Show Formation</div> <div> Diamond: Wingmen fly normal fingertip formation. The slot pilot flies a close trail position maintaining nose-tail clearance.</div> <div> Missing Man: Normal four-ship fingertip formation. On command from the leader, the number three aircraft pulls up and out of the formation. The number four aircraft holds position, maintaining relative spacing between himself and the leader.</div> <bR> <div> Rejoin</div> <div> Any rejoin requires an accurate appraisal of position and closure. The low drag nature of the F/A-18 and relative ineffectiveness of small throttle changes in slowing down require some anticipation for power reduction. The speed brakes are effective in reducing overtake. A radar lock-on may be used during the rejoin to provide range and overtake information. Maintaining 50 - 100 knots of true overtake will provide a controlled, expeditious rejoin. If you are number three or four, ensure that you are locked to the leader. As separation decreases to approximately 3000', reduce power smoothly to control overtake. At approximately 1500', true overtake should be about 50 knots. Consider using the speed brakes if overtake is excessive. Be able to stabilize momentarily 100' - 200' out in route position and then smoothly move into the fingertip position. If overtake is excessive approaching the extended fingertip position, initiate a controlled overshoot.</div> <bR> <div> Lead Changes</div> <div> Lead changes require an unmistakable transfer of responsibilities from one flight member to another. Lead changes may be initiated and acknowledged with either a radio call or visual signal. Visual contact with the new lead is required prior to initiating a lead change. The flight member assuming lead will be no further aft than the normal route/fingertip position prior to initiating or acknowledging the lead change. The lead change is effective upon acknowledgment. All flight members must continue to ensure aircraft separation as positions are changed. The new leader must continue to monitor the new wingman's position until the leader is established in front with the wingman looking at lead.</div> <div> If the radio is used for the lead changes, use call signs and be specific. The wingman assuming the lead will so state in his acknowledgment. Lead changes using visual signals may be preferred since it guarantees that the flight members are looking at each other. Whether done visually or using radio calls, all flight members must monitor aircraft separation until the new positions are established.</div> <bR> <div> Leaving Formation</div> <div> It is the duty of the wingman to leave the formation:</div> <div> · When directed to do so.</div> <div> · When you lose sight of the aircraft ahead.</div> <div> · When you are unable to join up or to stay in formation without crossing over, under, or in front of the aircraft ahead.</div> <div> · At any other time you feel that your presence in the formation constitutes a hazard.</div> <bR> <div> When you leave formation, clear yourself in the direction of your turn and notify leader. Rejoin only when directed to do so by the flight lead.</div> <bR> <div> Formation Landing</div> <div> Lead Procedures:</div> <div> · Establish an approach speed consistent with the heavier aircraft.</div> <div> · Position the wingman on the upwind side if the crosswind component exceeds five knots.</div> <div> · Plan to land near the center of your half of the runway to ensure enough runway is available for the wingman.</div> <div> · Ensure touchdown of the heavier aircraft is no slower than 6º AOA.</div> <div> · Do not touchdown long and fast.</div> <bR> <div> Wing Procedures:</div> <div> · Maintain a minimum of 10' lateral wingtip spacing.</div> <div> · Stack level with the lead aircraft as briefed by the flight lead when you are configured on final approach.</div> <div> · Cross-check the runway to ensure sufficient runway is available.</div> <div> · Go-around or execute a missed approach if sufficient runway/aircraft clearance is not available.</div> <bR> <div> Roll-out Procedures:</div> <div> · Prior to aerobraking, the leader should hold landing attitude until nose-tail separation is assured.</div> <div> · The wingman should smoothly aerobrake, avoiding abrupt aft stick.</div> <div> · Each pilot will maintain his landing side of the runway until both have slowed to normal taxi speed.</div> <div> · After assuring clearance, move to the turnoff/cold side of the runway. Wingmen may clear the leader to the cold side after their aircraft is under control.</div> <div> · If the wingman overruns the leader, accept the overrun and maintain the appropriate side of the runway. Do not attempt to reposition behind the leader. The most important consideration is wingtip clearance.</div> <bR> <div> Tactical Formation</div> <div> Varying factors of the tactical arena (weather, visibility, background, terrain, threat, etc.) will determine the position and responsibilities for the individual flight members. Central to all maneuvering must be a capability to communicate intent, role, and threat information. Definitions of pilot responsibilities and emphasis on air discipline will help ensure success in a restricted communications environment. The formations described in this chapter are applicable for both air-to-air and air-to-surface operations. The guidelines given have proven to be the most universally applicable. As the tactical situation changes, the numbers given here may change.</div> <bR> <div> Remember, flying a given formation is not an end in it self; it facilitates proper task prioritization, lookout, and offensive/defensive considerations. If you cannot perform your responsibility in a formation listed, get into one which does permit you to carry out your formation responsibilities. The flight briefing should cover, as much as possible, any changes that may be necessary.</div> <bR> <div> Mutual Support</div> <div> A vital subset of situational awareness is mutual support (MS). Mutual support is a contract within a flight of two or more aircraft that supports the flight’s mission objectives. An effective mutual support contract will enable a flight to maintain the offensive while enhancing its survival in a hostile environment. Mutual support in the modern combat arena is more directly related to SA than ever before.</div> <div> It demands position awareness of other flight members and the threat as well as an understanding of the flight’s and the threat’s weapons capability. Flight leads must carefully assess the experience/proficiency level of their flight members when developing the flight’s MS contract.</div> <bR> <div> A sound MS contract should provide for:</div> <div> · Position awareness of other flight members.</div> <div> · Early position awareness of the threat and the attack axis.</div> <div> · Communication of offensive and defensive information to the flight.</div> <div> · Targeting and weapons employment prior to threat attack.</div> <div> · The ability to prosecute the attack and/or disengage.</div> <bR> <div> Formations</div> <div> Visual formations can provide for all of the elements of a sound MS contract. Additionally, visual contact with other element members is critical in a visual fight. We typically choose to travel in a visual formation as we cannot always assume that the enemy at large is beyond visual range. Visual formations are easy to fly, provide a common and reliable reference for comm and targeting, mass firepower, and most importantly, provide immediate position awareness of supporting fighters. The angular references in Visual lookout is a priority task for all flight members, flight leads as well as wingmen.</div> <bR> <div> Historically, 90% of all air-to-air kills were achieved due to undetected attacks. Visual formations evolved throughout the years in an attempt to visually clear on another and deny the enemy an unseen entry. In addition to visual detection, survivability increases when each flight member has a potential for timely assistance by using the radio or his weapons. The amount of time you spend maintaining visual contact or the formation position influences your ability to detect a threat visually or by other means (radar, GCI, etc.). In addition, the dynamics of air combat maneuvering often drive you to a position where providing timely assistance is difficult.</div> <bR> <div> Formation Selection</div> <bR> <div> The basic combat formation employed by tactical fighters is the four-ship flight. The two-ship element is the basic fighting unit. The wingman's main duty is to fly formation on his leader and to support him at all times. He is to clear the area and perform his portion of the briefed mission.</div> <div> A four-ship flight consists of two elements directed by the four-ship flight lead, increasing the mutual support of all. Considering the variety of air and surface threats, terrain, weather, target arrays, and mission objectives that will be encountered in carrying out a wide range of wartime taskings, there is a need for both line abreast and wedge formations. Each of these two tactical formations has unique strengths. Conversely, each has weaknesses that restrict their utility and flexibility. For example, line abreast has several strengths. Where the major threat is from enemy fighters, it provides optimum visual cross coverage and good position for rapid maneuvering and mutual support to counter attack. Also, it diminishes the opportunity for a ground threat to be alerted by the leader's overflight and carry out a successful engagement on the wingman. (At ingress airspeeds gunners have an additional 2 to 4 seconds reaction time on a wedge wingman.)</div> <div> Line abreast makes it easy for the leader to check on the position and status of his wingman. It also lends itself well to simultaneous attacks by the leader and wingman against known enemy targets with distance deconfliction and turning room. On the other hand, line abreast formation has certain disadvantages. It is not practical to fly at extremely low altitude with random maneuvering. Moreover, line abreast is difficult for the wingman to achieve spacing on the leader for a sequenced attack, particularly where target location is not precisely known.</div> <bR> <div> In this same regard, wedge formation has its own set of strengths and weaknesses. Wedge provides less 6 o'clock threat lookout coverage and has less flexibility in initial maneuvering to counter air-to-air attacks behind the 3/9 line. On the strength side, wedge formation can be flown successfully at lower altitude, especially in mountainous terrain, because the wingman can keep both the leader in sight and adequately scan approaching terrain. In certain threat scenarios, extremely low altitude flight can be a critically important advantage.</div> <div> Wedge formation also allows for good offensive air capability against a forward quarter threat and allows good maneuvering potential. Wedge also provides much greater maneuvering flexibility as the wingman handles turns of any magnitude by maneuvers in the cone on either side of the leader. Such maneuvering often is required to pinpoint targets at the last minute, and also to evade pop-up ground threats such as automatic weapons fire. Finally, wedge also has advantages for multiple attacks against the same target or target array (not all threat scenarios call for single pass tactics). Both types of low altitude tactical formations are viable and necessary in varying threat scenarios.</div> <bR> <div> Formation Responsibilities</div> <div> The flight lead assigns responsibilities for each flight member. Dividing responsibilities ensures each pilot has a manageable number of tasks to perform. Flight member normal responsibilities are:</div> <bR> <div> · Number One: Primary planner and decision maker, primary navigation and radar lookout, visual lookout for mutual support of #2, and primary engaged fighter, if practical.</div> <div> · Number Two: Maintain formation position, visual lookout, mutual support of number one. Navigation position awareness, and radar awareness as other responsibilities allow.</div> <div> · Number Three: Support number one. Secondary planner and alternate decision maker, maintain support position for lead element, secondary navigation and radar monitor, visual lookout for number four, mutual support of the entire flight, and secondary engaged fighter, if practical.</div> <div> · Number Four: Maintain formation position, visual lookout for the flight, mutual support of number three. Navigation position awareness, and radar awareness as other responsibilities allow.</div> <bR> <div> Time-Sharing</div> <div> The goal on every low level training mission should be to improve the development of this cross-check. Practice and discipline are essential to maximizing visual mutual support. On each mission, pilots must start with the basic NEAR ROCKS, FAR ROCKS, CHECK SIX pattern and build up the visual search arena as allowed by task saturation, threat and flight conditions. When encountering extremely rough terrain, defensive reactions, navigation turns, etc., drop the lowest priority sectors in order. There will be times, such as hard turns, when only NEAR ROCKS can be cross-checked. The key is to quickly reestablish the cross-check one sector at a time as tasks permit.</div> <div>                                                             <IMG SRC="54a5e5e0.gif" border=0 width="350" height="350" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> Figure 3.4 Lookout Responsibilities</div> <div> Although the pilot has a myriad of responsibilities, he can only perform one task at a time. Therefore, he must employ a time sharing plan to quickly and efficiently accomplish many tasks. The following is an example of a time share plan for lookout responsibilities. The airspace around the aircraft is divided into sectors and each sector is assigned a priority based on lookout responsibilities (Figure 3.4). This plan is developed from a perspective of number two in a four-ship, but the principles apply to all positions in the flight.</div> <bR> <div> Sector 1: This is the hub of the cross-check. It is divided into two parts. Sector 1 is NEAR ROCKS, the rocks that will affect your flight path in the next 10 to 15 seconds. This sector is the highest priority sector and is the center of the cross-check. NEAR ROCKS are the ones that present an immediate threat. Sector 1A is FAR ROCKS, the terrain that will affect our future maneuvering. Pilots that look ahead at the FAR ROCKS are smooth in their maneuvering to maintain position or navigate because they see the mountain peaks and valleys in time to make small corrections.</div> <bR> <div> Sector 2: Besides avoiding the ground, the next most important area for lookout space is inside the flight's six o'clock. Sector 2 allows number two to monitor his formation position and check lead's six o'clock. Sectors 1, 1A and 2 make up the basic cross-check—NEAR ROCKS, FAR ROCKS, CHECK SIX.</div> <bR> <div> Sector 3: Once these responsibilities are completed, other areas can be brought into the cross-check. The next sector is inside the flight ahead of the 3/9 line. Searching this area can detect bandits in a conversion, as well as SAMs that may be fired from the front quadrant. Sector 3 is lower priority than Sectors 1, 1A and 2; therefore, it should be searched less frequently. NEAR ROCKS and FAR ROCKS must be checked during each search cycle. The frequency of search is dependent on pilot task saturation.</div> <bR> <div> Sector 4: When proficient enough, expand the search to a 360º lookout by picking up Sector 4. Sector 4 is outside the flight, ahead/behind the 3/9 line. This sector is the lowest priority—the wingman owes it to his flight lead to provide inside the flight lookout before dedicating time to this sector.</div> <bR> <div> Radar Integration and Cockpit Tasks</div> <div> Where does the radar fit into the cross-check? The answer is in the responsibilities section listed above. Flight position will determine where to incorporate radar lookout. As lead or three, it should be part of Sector 3. As two or four, the radar should be after Sector 4. Performing cockpit tasks is the next problem. The best plan is accomplish as many as possible prior to entering the low altitude regime. Switch errors are often made in the heat of battle. When switch changes are required, substitute them for a cross-check sector search. For pacing, do one task, then reference your flight path before moving to another task.</div> <bR> <div> Two-Ship Formations</div> <div> Line Abreast</div> <div> Line abreast formation is a position 0º - 20º aft, 4000' - 12,000' spacing, with altitude separation. At low altitude, the wingman should fly no lower than lead. Unless further defined by the flight lead, wingmen will fly in the 6000' - 9000' range and strive for the 0º line (Figure 3.5). The 6000' - 9000' position provides optimum visual and firepower mutual support for threats from the beam and six o'clock positions. The flight lead may tailor the parameters of this formation to meet particular situations or requirements.</div> <div> For example, in poor visibility conditions at low altitude, the wingman may be briefed to fly 4000' - 6000' lateral spacing. For certain air-to-air scenarios, the briefed lateral spacing may be 9000' - 12,000' to enhance six o'clock visual coverage while complicating the enemy's visual acquisition of all aircraft in the formation. The wingman needs to maintain a formation position which allows him to perform his other responsibilities and not spend all his time flying formation.</div> <div> Each pilot must be in a position to detect an adversary converting on the wingman's stern prior to that adversary reaching firing parameters. Against an all-aspect, all-weather adversary this may not be possible. F/A-18 rearward visibility field-of-view (FOV) is not a limiting factor, as it is in most other aircraft. This formation allows element members to be in position to quickly bring ordnance to bear when a threat is detected. A vertical stack of 2000 to 6000 feet, when applicable, minimizes the chance of simultaneous detection by a bandit.</div> <div> <IMG SRC="55726260.gif" border=0 width="550" height="550" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.5 Two-Ship Line Abreast</div> <div> Wedge</div> <div> Wedge is defined as the wingman positioned from 30º to 60º aft of the leader's 3/9 line, 4000' to 6,000' back (Figure 3.6). The advantages of wedge are that the leader is well protected in the 6 o'clock area and is free to maneuver aggressively. The wingman may switch sides as required during turns. He may also switch sides as required to avoid terrain, obstacles or weather but must return to the original side unless cleared by the leader. The flight lead may extend the formation spacing to 12,000' to meet particular situations or requirements.</div> <div> The most significant disadvantage of the wedge is that it provides little to no six o'clock protection for the wingman. Lead changes, if required, are difficult to execute.</div> <div> <IMG SRC="5562c2c0.gif" border=0 width="300" height="300" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.6 Two-Ship Wedge</div> <div> Fighting Wing</div> <div> This formation, flown as a two-ship, gives the wingman a maneuvering cone from 30º to 70º aft of line abreast and lateral spacing between 500' to 3000' (Figure 3.7). Number two maneuvers off lead with cutoff as necessary to maintain position. This formation is employed in situations where maximum maneuvering potential is desired. Arenas for use include holding in a tactical environment or maneuvering around obstacles or clouds. This formation is employed by elements when flying fluid four.</div> <bR> <div> Advantages:</div> <div> · The formation allows the element to maintain flight integrity under marginal weather conditions or in rough terrain.</div> <div> · Allows for cockpit heads down time for administrative functions when in a low-threat arena where hard maneuvering is not required.</div> <bR> <div> Disadvantages:</div> <div> · Poor to nonexistent six o'clock coverage.</div> <div> · Easy detection of formation by single threat.</div> <div> <IMG SRC="55590900.gif" border=0 width="400" height="400" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.7 Fighting Wing</div> <div> Four-Ship Formations</div> <div> The four-ship is under control of one flight lead and is employed as a single entity until such time as it is forced to separate into two elements. At no time should an element sacrifice element integrity attempting to maintain the four-ship formation. Each two-ship element should have its own radar and visual plan so that no changes will be required if the four-ship is split into two-ships.</div> <bR> <div> Box/Offset Box</div> <div> In the box formation, elements use the basic line abreast two-ship maneuvering and lookout principles. The trailing element takes 1.5 to 3 NM separation, depending on terrain and weather. The objective of the spacing is to give maximum separation to avoid easy visual detection of the whole formation, while positioning the rear element in a good position to immediately engage an enemy converting on the lead element (Figure 3.8).</div> <div> Use of air-to-air (A-A) TACAN between the elements, and the radar in the rear element, will help keep the proper spacing. However, proper emission control may preclude their use in combat. The arrowhead variation makes number two's formation easier, freeing him for more lookout (Figure 3.9).</div> <bR> <div> NOTE: Formation maneuvers are initiated by element leaders. Number three maneuvers to achieve prebriefed spacing on the lead element (based on threat, mission, weather,etc.).</div> <bR> <div> Advantages:</div> <div> · The formation provides excellent mutual support and lookout.</div> <div> · The rear element is positioned to engage an adversary making a stern conversion on the lead element.</div> <div> · It is difficult to visually acquire the entire flight.</div> <div> · Element spacing for an attack is built into the formation.</div> <bR> <div> Disadvantages:</div> <div> · The formation is difficult to fly in poor visibility and rugged terrain.</div> <div> · Depending on position, the trailing element may be momentarily mistaken as a threat, especially if staggered too much off to one side.</div> <div> <IMG SRC="55490900.gif" border=0 width="400" height="400" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.8 Four Ship Offset Box</div> <div> Position may be modified within a 4000-12,000' envelope by flight lead.</div> <div> <IMG SRC="55390900.gif" border=0 width="400" height="400" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.9 Arrowhead Formation.</div> <div> Position may be modified within a 4000-12,000' envelope by flight lead.</div> <div> Wedge</div> <div> Elements are in two-ship wedge with the trailing element lead 1.5 - 3 NM back, offset as required to maintain visual (Figure 3.10). Number two flies off of number one, maneuvering with cutoff as necessary to maintain position. Number three flies off of number one, maneuvering as required to maintain visual. Number four flies off of number three.</div> <bR> <div> Advantages:</div> <div> · Very offensive for air-to-air threats forward of the 3/9 line.</div> <div> · Inexperienced wingmen may find it easier to maintain a visual on lead and stay in formation.</div> <div> · The formation permits four aircraft to maintain flight integrity under marginal weather or extremely rugged terrain conditions.</div> <bR> <div> Disadvantages:</div> <div> · Six o'clock lookout may be poor.</div> <div> · Formation easily detected by single threat.</div> <div> · The defensive maneuvering flexibility of the flight is very limited.</div> <div> · Number two must be disciplined and fly no further than 6,000 feet from lead to avoid conflict with trailing element.</div> <div> <IMG SRC="552c2900.gif" border=0 width="450" height="400" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.10 Four Ship Wedge Formation.</div> <div> <IMG SRC="551f4160.gif" border=0 width="500" height="278" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.11 Fluid Four Formation.</div> <div> Position may be modified within a 4000-12,000' envelope by flight lead.</div> <div> Fluid Four</div> <div> Element leads maintain line abreast formation, while wingmen assume fighting wing (Figure 3.11). Number three maneuvers off number one as if in line abreast. Number two and number four maneuver off their element leaders to maintain the outside of the formation. Element leads are responsible for deconfliction of elements when crossing the opposing element's six o'clock.</div> <bR> <div> Advantages:</div> <div> · Inexperienced wingmen are kept close for ease of maneuvering.</div> <div> · Four-ship maneuverability is good.</div> <div> · Formation provides concentration of force.</div> <div> · Easily converts to three-ship when one aircraft falls out.</div> <bR> <div> Disadvantages:</div> <div> · Adversary can acquire all four aircraft.</div> <div> · Defensive maneuvering rapidly becomes confusing due to the proximity of aircraft.</div> <div> · Cumbersome to maneuver at low altitude in rough terrain.</div> <bR> <div> Spread Four</div> <div> Element leads maintain the same spacing as for fluid four, but wingmen position themselves 0º to 30º back from their element leads and 6000' to 9000' spread (Figure 3.12). Increased lateral spacing for wingmen facilitates maneuvering. Each element uses fluid maneuvering. Number three flies off number one. The elements are not always required to be line abreast. On some occasions they may be briefly in trail.</div> <bR> <div> Advantages:</div> <div> · Spread formation makes it difficult for an adversary to visually acquire the entire flight at once.</div> <div> · Firepower is maximized for BVR weapons employment.</div> <bR> <div> Disadvantages:</div> <div> · Maneuvering is difficult if the line abreast position is maintained.</div> <div> · Very difficult for wingmen to fly at low altitude.</div> <div> <IMG SRC="550f4110.gif" border=0 width="500" height="273" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.12 Spread Four Formation.</div> <div> Position may be modified within a 4000-12,000' envelope by flight lead.</div> <div> <IMG SRC="54f2c2c0.gif" border=0 width="300" height="300" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.13 Three Ship Vic</div> <div> Position may be modified within a 4000-12,000' envelope by flight lead.</div> <div> Three-Ship Formations</div> <div> There may be occasions when a priority mission requires maximum available aircraft and a three-ship is the only alternative. Mutual support requirements to ensure survivability and recovery are paramount; therefore, a three-ship contingency should be briefed on all four-ship missions. On these occasions, the following three-ship formation discussion is applicable.</div> <bR> <div> Responsibilities:</div> <div> · Number One—navigation, then radar and visual lookout.</div> <div> · Number Two—visual and radar lookout, back-up navigation.</div> <div> · Number Three—visual, then radar lookout.</div> <bR> <div> Vic Formation</div> <div> This is basically the arrowhead four-ship without number two (Figure 3.13). The lead aircraft maneuvers as desired. The trailing element uses line abreast maneuvering to follow.</div> <bR> <div> Wedge</div> <div> This is the same as four-ship wedge without number four.</div> <bR> <div> Fluid Three</div> <div> This is the same as fluid four with one airplane missing. If the three-ship is caused by one aircraft falling out from a briefed four-ship, the following position changes should be followed: if lead falls out, number three assumes lead and number two moves to line abreast; if number three falls out, number four moves up to line abreast; if number two or four fall out, there are no changes.</div> <bR> <div> Three-Ship Spread</div> <div> This is the same as spread four with one aircraft missing. Roles and responsibilities caused by fall out from a four-ship are the same as fluid three.</div> <bR> <div> Tactical Turns</div> <bR> <div> Line Abreast Formations</div> <div> These may be turned using the radio or "radio silent" signals. The line abreast formation compensates for its inherent maneuvering problems with specialized prebriefed procedures. These include the type of turns to be made, the parameters at which these turns will be made, and the method by which these turns will be initiated. The turns consist of 45º - 90º delayed turns, in-place turns, crossturns, weaves, and check turns (Figures 3.14 and 3.15). The parameters for the turns are briefed by each flight leader and usually consist of the speed, "G", and the power required in the turn. The method of turn initiation is generally by radio call, wing flash, or check turn.</div> <bR> <div> Radar/Visual Lookout</div> <div> Also briefed are the individual areas of visual and radar responsibility. The line abreast formation, while very common and widely accepted, has pitfalls which the inexperienced must overcome for complete effectiveness. Probably the first shortcoming is the flight leader who assumes that everyone flies formations exactly the same. This pilot may skimp their briefing, leaving some doubt as to one or more of the necessary parameters or responsibilities. The only way to prevent this oversight is strict adherence to squadron standards or a thorough briefing on all planned or potential formations. Do not leave the flight briefing with unresolved questions or if unclear on formation positions and responsibilities.</div> <div> The second trap is the flight leader who does not realize the problems of his wingman when maneuvering in a random manner. Specifically, if the flight leader does not keep consistent formation parameters (heading and airspeed), he forces his wingman to devote excessive time maintaining position instead of visual/radar search. Drifting left or right after establishing a direction is an example. Likewise, a 10º check turn into a lagging wingman is preferable to the time and effort required for that wingman to drive forward to the briefed position. Exact headings are not critical; however, mutual support responsibilities are vital. This is not to say a leader flies off his wingman. He can make the wingman more effective by being considerate. If your situation requires more than random turns, a more maneuverable formation should be flown.</div> <bR> <div> Maneuvering With Unrestricted Comm</div> <div> When the radios are available, some flight leads will use them. The tactical turns will normally be initiated by the flight lead. The preparatory command for a turn is flight call sign and the command of execution is the type turn called.</div> <bR> <div> EXAMPLE:</div> <div> "Fist One, 90 right" Turns of 90 are assumed to be delayed types unless called otherwise.</div> <bR> <div> EXAMPLE:</div> <div> "Fist One, hook right."</div> <div> Radio Silent Maneuvering</div> <div> There may be times when radio silent procedures are used to maneuver the flight. Under these conditions certain variables must be held standard (Figures 3.16 and 3.17).</div> <bR> <div> The basic "contract" between flight members is:</div> <div> · The wingman will always strive for the briefed position.</div> <div> · The man caught in front is responsible for regaining the briefed position (weave, shackle, etc.). This should be covered in your flight briefing.</div> <div> · The wingman does not exceed 90º off the leader's heading.</div> <div> · The wingman and lead will use the same basic type of tactical turns at all altitudes (normally, MIL power and 4 G turns).</div> <div> · Lead initiates all turns. There are no start turn signals from wingman to lead.</div> <div> · A turn away from the wingman will be signaled by lead (wing flash, check turn, etc.).</div> <div> · A turn into the wingman is signaled by a turn into the wingman.</div> <div> · If at low altitude, the wingman does not stack lower than the leader.</div> <bR> <div> During tactical radio silent turns at low altitude, the man being turned into may do a 30º check turn away from the other man to deconflict flight paths and/or signify acknowledgment. At medium or high altitude, this check turn may be omitted, at flight lead discretion. Flight leads are expected to specify whether or not check turns will be used in this way. Also, flight members must differentiate between radio silent commands (big wing flash) and belly checks, or terrain masking. (At low altitude, nose rate movement is the best way to differentiate.) Visual lookout responsibilities shift forward as lower altitudes are encountered. The percent of time clearing for airborne threats is reduced at low altitude.</div> <bR> <div> Turns Into the Wingman</div> <div> · Lead initiates the turn by turning into the wingman, normally at MIL power and a sustained 4 G's.</div> <div> · The wingman continues straight ahead (or checks 20º - 30º as briefed) and searches the new six through lead.</div> <div> · If lead rolls out short of passing through the wingman's six o'clock, the wingman now weaves to line abreast (delayed 45º - 60º turn).</div> <div> · If lead turns through the wingman's six o'clock, the wingman assumes a 90º turn and turns to regain line abreast.</div> <div> · If a 180º turn is required, it will be accomplished in increments of two delayed 90º turns.</div> <bR> <div> Turns Away from the Wingman</div> <div> · Lead makes a distinctive wing flash or check turn of approximately 30º to signal the turn.</div> <div> · The wingman sees the flash and begins the turn into lead using the briefed G and power setting (i.e., MIL, 4 G sustained, etc.).</div> <div> · If lead wants a delayed 45º - 60º turn, he turns into the wingman when the wingman obtains the desired heading. This is the wingman's command to roll out.</div> <div> · If lead wants a delayed 90º turn, he allows the wingman to continue turning through his six o'clock.</div> <div> · If lead wants to turn 180º away, he initiates the turn with a continuous 180º turn.</div> <bR> <div> Check Turns</div> <div> · Lead turns to the desired heading using a gentle turn.</div> <div> · Wingman sees either a divergence or convergence and strives for line abreast using an S-turn, vertical, or power.</div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <IMG SRC="54ef4f40.gif" border=0 width="500" height="500" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.14 Delayed 90º and Hook Turns</div> <div> <IMG SRC="54df4f40.gif" border=0 width="500" height="500" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.15 Delayed 45º/Crossturn/Check Turns</div> <div> <IMG SRC="54cf42c0.gif" border=0 width="500" height="300" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.16 Radio Silent Turns Into Wingman</div> <div> <IMG SRC="54bf42c0.gif" border=0 width="500" height="300" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <div> Figure 3.17 Radio Silent Turns Away From Wingman</div> <div> <TABLE BORDER="10" CELLPADDING="5" CELLSPACING="3" WIDTH="656" BORDERCOLORLIGHT="#FFFFFF" BORDERCOLORDARK="#808080" FRAME="BOX" RULES="ALL" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0" > <tR> <tD VALIGN=TOP HEIGHT= 16 WIDTH="75"><div> <A HREF="id73_cpt.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="cockpit"><U>Cockpit</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="82"><div> <A HREF="id80_bf.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Basic Flight"><U>Basic Flight</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="80"><div> <A HREF="id88_bfm.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="BMF"><U>BFM</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="78"><div> <A HREF="#form" TITLE="Formation"><U>Formation</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP WIDTH="75"><div> <A HREF="id105_mt.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Mission Tactics"><U>M-Tactics</U></A></div> </tD> <tD VALIGN=TOP><NOBR><div> <A 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